Ethics for the Information Age

Kantianism 75 2.7 Act Utilitarianism 76 2.7.1 Principle of Utility 76 2.7.2 Evaluating a Scenario Using Act Utilitarianism 78 2.7.3 The Case for Act Utilitarianism 79 2.7.4 The Case against Act Utilitarianism 80 2.8 Rule Utilitarianism 81 2.8.1 Basis of Rule Utilitarianism 81 2.8.2 Evaluating a Scenario Using Rule Utilitarianism 82 2.8.3 The Case for Rule Utilitarianism 83 2.8.4 The Case against Utilitarianism in General 84 2.9 Social Contract Theory 85 2.9.1 The Social Contract 85 2.9.2 Rawls,s Theory of Justice 87 2.9.3 Evaluating a Scenario Using Social Contract Theory 90 2.9.4 The Case for Social Contract Theory 90 2.9.5 The Case against Social Contract Theory 92 2.10 Comparing Workable Ethical Theories 93 2.11 Morality of Breaking the Law 94 2.11.1 Social Contract Theory Perspective 95 2.11.2 Kantian Perspective 96 2.11.3 Rule Utilitarian Perspective 96 2.11.4 Act Utilitarian Perspective 96 2.11.5 Conclusion 97 Summary 97 Review Questions 99 Discussion Questions 101 In-Class Exercises 102 Further Reading 103 References 103 An Interview with James Moor 105 3 Networked Communications 109 3.1 Introduction 109 3.2 Email and Spam 111 3.2.1 How EmailWorks 111 3.2.2 The Spam Epidemic 111 3.2.3 Ethical Evaluations of Spamming 114 3.2.4 Need for Social-Technical Solutions 116 3.3 The World Wide Web 116 3.3.1 Attributes of the Web 116 3.3.2 How We Use the Web 117 3.3.3 Too Much Governmental Control or Too Little? 120 3.4 Censorship 122 3.4.1 Direct Censorship 122 3.4.2 Self-Censorship 123 3.4.3 Challenges Posed by the Internet 123 3.4.4 Ethical Perspectives on Censorship 124 3.5 Freedom of Expression 125 3.5.1 History 125 3.5.2 Freedom of Expression Not an Absolute Right 127 3.5.3 FCC v. Pacifica Foundation et al. 128 3.6 Children and Inappropriate Content 129 3.6.1 Web Filters 129 3.6.2 Child Internet Protection Act 130 3.6.3 Ethical Evaluations of CIPA 131 3.6.4 Sexting 132 3.7 Breaking Trust on the Internet 134 3.7.1 Identity Theft 134 3.7.2 Chat-Room Predators 135 3.7.3 Ethical Evaluations of Police "Sting" Operations 136 3.7.4 False Information 137 3.7.5 Cyberbullying 138 3.8 Internet Addiction 140 3.8.1 Is Internet Addiction Real? 140 3.8.2 Contributing Factors 142 3.8.3 Ethical Evaluation of Internet Addiction 143 Summary 144 Review Questions 145 Discussion Questions 146 In-Class Exercises 148 Further Reading 149 References 150 An Interview with Michael Liebhold 155 4 Intellectual Property 157 4.1 Introduction 157 4.2 Intellectual Property Rights 159 4.2.1 What Is Intellectual Property? 159 4.2.2 Property Rights 159 4.2.3 Extending the Argument to Intellectual Property 160 4.2.4 Benefits of Intellectual Property Protection 163 4.2.5 Limits to Intellectual Property Protection 163 4.3 Protecting Intellectual Property 165 4.3.1 Trade Secrets 165 4.3.2 Trademarks and Service Marks 166 4.3.3 Patents 166 4.3.4 Copyrights 168 4.4 Fair Use 172 4.4.1 Sony v. Universal City Studios 174 4.4.2 Digital Recording Technology 174 4.4.3 Audio Home Recording Act of 1992 175 4.4.4 RIAA v. Diamond Multimedia Systems Inc. 176 4.4.5 Kelly v. Arriba Soft Corporation 176 4.4.6 Google Books 177 4.5 New Restrictions on Use 179 4.5.1 Digital Millennium Copyright Act 179 4.5.2 Digital Rights Management 180 4.5.3 Secure Digital Music Initiative 180 4.5.4 Sony BMG Music Entertainment Rootkit 181 4.5.5 Encrypting DVDs 181 4.5.6 Foiling HD-DVD Encryption 182 4.5.7 Criticisms of Digital Rights Management 183 4.5.8 Online Music Stores Drop Digital Rights Management 183 4.6 Peer-to-Peer Networks 184 4.6.1 Napster 185 4.6.2 FastTrack 185 4.6.3 BitTorrent 186 4.6.4 RIAA Lawsuits 187 4.6.5 Universities Caught in the Middle 187 4.6.6 MGM v. Grokster 188 4.6.7 Legal Action Against The Pirate Bay 190 4.6.8 Legal Music Services on the Internet 190 4.7 Protections for Software 191 4.7.1 Software Copyrights 191 4.7.2 Violations of Software Copyrights 191 4.7.3 Software Patents 192 4.7.4 Safe Software Development 193 4.8 Open-Source Software 194 4.8.1 Consequences of Proprietary Software 194 4.8.2 "Open Source" Definition 195 4.8.3 Beneficial Consequences of Open-Source Software 196 4.8.4 Examples of Open-Source Software 197 4.8.5 The GNU Project and Linux 197 4.8.6 Impact of Open-Source Software 198 4.8.7 Critique of the Open-Source Software Movement 199 4.9 Legitimacy of Intellectual Property Protection for Software 200 4.9.1 Rights-Based Analysis 200 4.9.2 Utilitarian Analysis 201 4.9.3 Conclusion 202 4.10 Creative Commons 203 Summary 205 Review Questions 208 Discussion Questions 209 In-Class Exercises 210 Further Reading 211 References 211 An Interview with Wendy Seltzer 217 5 Privacy 219 5.1 Introduction 219 5.2 Perspectives on Privacy 221 5.2.1 Defining Privacy 221 5.2.2 Harms and Benefits of Privacy 222 5.2.3 Is There a Natural Right to Privacy? 225 5.2.4 Privacy and Trust 229 5.2.5 A Taxonomy of Privacy 230 5.2.6 Case Study 231 5.3 Disclosing Information 234 5.4 Public Information 235 5.4.1 Rewards or Loyalty Programs 236 5.4.2 Body Scanners 236 5.4.3 Digital Video Recorders 237 5.4.4 Automobile "Black Boxes" 237 5.4.5 Enhanced 911 Service 238 5.4.6 RFIDs 238 5.4.7 Implanted Chips 239 5.4.8 Cookies 239 5.4.9 Biometrics 240 5.4.10 Spyware 240 5.5 U.S. Legislation 240 5.5.1 Fair Credit Reporting Act 240 5.5.2 Fair and Accurate Credit Transactions Act 241 5.5.3 Family Education Rights and Privacy Act 241 5.5.4 Employee Polygraph Protection Act 241 5.5.5 Video Privacy Protection Act 242 5.5.6 Financial Services Modernization Act 242 5.5.7 Children,s Online Privacy Protection Act 243 5.5.8 Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act 243 5.5.9 Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act 243 5.6 Public Records 243 5.6.1 Census Records 244 5.6.2 Internal Revenue Service Records 244 5.6.3 FBI National Crime Information Center 2000 246 5.6.4 OneDOJ Database 247 5.6.5 Privacy Act of 1974 248 5.7 Covert Government Surveillance 249 5.7.1 Wiretaps and Bugs 250 5.7.2 Operation Shamrock 252 5.7.3 Carnivore Surveillance System 253 5.7.4 Covert Activities after 9/11 254 5.8 U.S. Legislation Authorizing Wiretapping 255 5.8.1 Title III 255 5.8.2 Electronic Communications Privacy Act 255 5.8.3 Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act 255 5.8.4 USA PATRIOT Act 256 5.9 DataMining 261 5.9.1 Marketplace: Households 263 5.9.2 IRS Audits 263 5.9.3 Syndromic Surveillance System 264 5.9.4 Telecommunications Records Database 264 5.9.5 Total Information Awareness 264 5.9.6 Criticisms of the TIA Program 265 5.9.7 Who Should Own Information about a Transaction? 265 5.9.8 Opt-in Versus Opt-out 266 5.9.9 Facebook Beacon 267 5.10 Identity Theft 267 5.10.1 Background 267 5.10.2 History and Role of the Social Security Number 269 5.10.3 Debate over a National ID Card 270 5.10.4 The REAL ID Act 272 5.11 Encryption 273 5.11.1 Symmetric Encryption 273 5.11.2 Public-Key Cryptography 273 5.11.3 Pretty Good Privacy 276 5.11.4 Clipper Chip 276 5.11.5 Effects of U.S. Export Restrictions 277 5.11.6 Digital Cash 278 Summary 280 Review Questions 283 Discussion Questions 285 In-class Exercises 288 Further Reading 289 References 289 An Interview with Ann Cavoukian 297 6 Computer and Network Security 301 6.1 Introduction 301 6.2 Viruses, Worms, and Trojan Horses 302 6.2.1 Viruses 302 6.2.2 Worms 306 6.2.3 The Internet Worm 310 6.2.4 Trojan Horses 313 6.2.5 Bot Networks 314 6.2.6 Defensive Measures 314 6.3 Phreaks and Hackers 315 6.3.1 Hackers 315 6.3.2 Phone Phreaking 320 6.3.3 The Cuckoo,s Egg 320 6.3.4 Legion of Doom 321 6.3.5 Fry Guy 322 6.3.6 U.S. v. Riggs 323 6.3.7 Steve Jackson Games 324 6.3.8 Retrospective 324 6.3.9 Penalties for Hacking 326 6.3.10 Recent Incidents 327 6.4 Denial-of-Service Attacks 328 6.4.1 Attacks that Consume Scarce Resources 328 6.4.2 Defensive Measures 331 6.4.3 Distributed Denial-of-Service Attacks 331 6.4.4 Blue Security 332 6.4.5 Fourth of July Attacks 332 6.4.6 Attacks on Twitter 333 6.4.7 SATAN 333 6.5 Online Voting 334 6.5.1 Motivation for Online Voting 334 6.5.2 Proposals 335 6.5.3 Ethical Evaluation 335 Summary 338 Review Questions 339 Discussion Questions 340 In-Class Exercises 341 Further Reading 342 References 343 An Interview with Matt Bishop 347 7 Computer Reliability 351 7.1 Introduction 351 7.2 Data-Entry or Data-Retrieval Errors 352 7.2.1 Disfranchised Voters 352 7.2.2 False Arrests 352 7.2.3 Analysis: Accuracy of NCIC Records 353 7.3 Software and Billing Errors 354 7.3.1 Errors Leading to System Malfunctions 354 7.3.2 Errors Leading to System Failures 355 7.3.3 Analysis: E-Retailer PostsWrong Price, Refuses to Deliver 356 7.4 Notable Software System Failures 357 7.4.1 Patriot Missile 358 7.4.2 Ariane 5 359 7.4.3 AT&T Long-Distance Network 360 7.4.4 Robot Missions to Mars 360 7.4.5 Denver International Airport 362 7.4.6 Tokyo Stock Exchange 363 7.4.7 Direct Recording Electronic Voting Machines 364 7.5 Therac-25 367 7.5.1 Genesis of the Therac-25 367 7.5.2 Chronology of Accidents and AECL Responses 368 7.5.3 Software Errors 370 7.5.4 Postmortem 372 7.5.5 Moral Responsibility of the Therac-25 Team 373 7.6 Computer Simulations 374 7.6.1 Uses of Simulation 374 7.6.2 Validating Simulations 375 7.7 Software Engineering 377 7.7.1 Specification 377 7.7.2 Development 378 7.7.3 Validation 379 7.7.4 Software Quality Is Improving 380 7.8 SoftwareWarranties 381 7.8.1 ShrinkwrapWarranties 381 7.8.2 Are SoftwareWarranties Enforceable? 382 7.8.3 Moral Responsibility of Software Manufacturers 385 Summary 386 Review Questions 388 Discussion Questions 390 In-class Exercises 390 Further Reading 391 References 392 An Interview with Avi Rubin 395 8 Professional Ethics 397 8.1 Introduction 397 8.2 Are Computer Experts Professionals? 398 8.2.1 Characteristics of a Profession 398 8.2.2 Certified Public Accountants 399 8.2.3 Computer-Related Careers 400 8.3 Software Engineering Code of Ethics 402 8.3.1 Preamble 402 8.3.2 Principles 403 8.4 Analysis of the Code 410 8.4.1 Preamble 410 8.4.2 Virtue Ethics 411 8.4.3 Alternative List of Fundamental Principles 414 8.5 Case Studies 415 8.5.1 Software Recommendation 416 8.5.2 Child Pornography 417 8.5.3 Anti-Worm 418 8.5.4 Consulting Opportunity 420 8.6 Whistleblowing 422 8.6.1 Morton Thiokol/NASA 423 8.6.2 Hughes Aircraft 425 8.6.3 U.S. Legislation Related to Whistleblowing 426 8.6.4 Morality ofWhistleblowing 427 Summary 431 Review Questions 433 Discussion Questions 433 In-class Exercises 435 Further Reading 436 References 437 An Interview with Paul Axtell 439 9 Work and Wealth 443 9.1 Introduction 443 9.2 Automation and Unemployment 444 9.2.1 Automation and Job Destruction 445 9.2.2 Automation and Job Creation 447 9.2.3 Effects of Increase in Productivity 448 9.2.4 Rise of the Robots? 451 9.3 Workplace Changes 453 9.3.1 Organizational Changes 454 9.3.2 Telework 455 9.3.3 Temporary Work 457 9.3.4 Monitoring 457 9.3.5 Multinational Teams 459 9.4 Globalization 459 9.4.1 Arguments for Globalization 460 9.4.2 Arguments against Globalization 461 9.4.3 Dot-Com Bust Increases IT Sector Unemployment 462 9.4.4 Foreign Workers in the American IT Industry 462 9.4.5 Foreign Competition 463 9.5 The Digital Divide 464 9.5.1 Evidence of the Digital Divide 465 9.5.2 Models of Technological Diffusion 466 9.5.3 Critiques of the Digital Divide 468 9.5.4 Net Neutrality 469 9.6 The "Winner-Take-All Society" 470 9.6.1 The Winner-Take-All Phenomenon 470 9.6.2 Harmful Effects of Winner-Take-All 472 9.6.3 Reducing Winner-Take-All Effects 473 Summary 474 Review Questions 476 Discussion Questions 476 In-class Exercises 477 Further Reading 479 References 479 An Interview with Jerry Berman 483 Appendix A: Plagiarism 487 Consequences of Plagiarism 487 Types of Plagiarism 488 Guidelines for Citing Sources 488 How to Avoid Plagiarism 488 Misuse of Sources 489 Additional Information 489 References 489 Index 491