Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function

Acids
4.4.4 Pectin
4.5 The Role of Microorganisms in the Biogeochemical Cycle of Nitrogen
4.5.1 Nitrification
4.5.2 Denitrification
4.5.3 N2 Fixation
4.6 The Role of Microorganisms in the Biogeochemical Cycle of Sulfur
4.6.1 The Oxidation of Reduced Sulfur Compounds
4.6.2 Desulfurication
4.7 Conclusions
- References
5 Plant Traits and Adaptive Strategies: Their Role in Ecosystem Function
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Schemes to Classify Plants on the Basis of Their Ecological Traits
5.2.1 Single-Character Functional Classification of Vascular Plants
5.2.2 Attempts to Classify Species Based on Their Overall Ecological Adaptability
5.3 Adaptive Strategies
5.3.1 Optimization
5.3.2 Plant Adaptive Strategies
5.3.3 Why Optimally Criteria Are Not Always Sufficient
5.4 Definition of Ecosystem Functional Properties
5.5 The Meaning of Adaptive Strategy in a Complex, Nonlinear World
5.6 Conclusions: The Importance of Diversity in a Nonequilibrium Situation
- References
6 Scaling from Species to Vegetation: The Usefulness of Functional Groups
6.1 Introduction: What Are Functional Groups and Why Use Them?
6.2 Selecting Functional Groups
6.3 Narrow or Wide Grouping: The Dilemma of Experimental Safety and Ecological Applicability
6.4 Grouping of Plant Species with Respect to Their Structural, Physiological, and Life Strategy Characteristics
6.4.1 Life-Forms and Structures: The Morphotype
6.4.2 Dry Matter Partitioning: Investment Type
6.4.3 The Physiotype
6.4.4 The Physiomorphotype
6.4.5 Life Strategies
6.5 The Spatial Definition of Functional Groups within Plant Communities
6.6 Ecosystems: The Largest Functional Group
6.7 Integration of Contrasting Levels of Complexity: A Compromise
6.8 A Promising Tool: Using Functional Groups in Controlled Ecosystems
6.9 Conclusions
- References

Section C: Species Interaction
7 Evolution of Functional Groups in Basidiomycetes (Fungi)
7.1 Introduction
7.2 What Are Fungi?
7.2.1 Yeasts and Dimorphic Fungi
7.3 Functional Fungal Groups
7.4 Evolution of Fungal Parasites of Plants
7.5 Evolution in Diverse Wood-Decaying Fungi
7.5.1 Saprobic Fungi
7.6 Evolution in Symbiontic Basidiomycetes
7.6.1 Basidiolichens
7.6.2 Mycorrhizae
7.7 Diversity and Coevolutionary Trends in Septobasidiales
7.8 Conclusions
- References
8 The Role of Parasites in Plant Populations and Communities
8.1 Introduction
8.2 The Diversity and Specialization of Parasites and Their Effects on the Fitness of the Host Plant
8.2.1 Parasitic Plants
8.2.2 Fungal and Viral Pathogens
8.3 The Hidden Effects of Parasite Attack - Changes in the Genetic Structure of Plant Populations
8.4 Parasite Attack as a Determinant of Ecosystem Structure
8.4.1 Lessons from Exotic Pathogens and Severely Disturbed Natural Systems
8.4.2 Evidence from Natural Parasite-Host Associations
8.5 Conclusions
- References
9 Plant-Microbe Mutualisms and Community Structure
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Plant-Microbe Mutualisms in Grassland Communities
9.3 Plant-Microbe Mutualisms in Savanna and Tropical Forest Communities
9.4 Plant-Microbe Mutualisms in Boreal and Temperate Forest Communities
9.5 Plant-Microbe Mutualisms in Heathland and Related Wetland Ecosystems
9.6 The Role of Mutualisms in Successional Processes
9.7 Conclusions
- References
10 The Evolution of Interactions and Diversity in Plant- Insect Systems: The Urophora-Eurytoma Food Web in Galls on Palearctic Cardueae
10.1 Introduction
10.2 The Urophora Food Web
10.2.1 General Ecological Characteristics of the Urophora-Eurytoma System
10.2.2 Structure and Evolution of the Urophora Gall
10.2.3 The Effect of the Gall Size on the Two Eurytoma spp
10.3 Resource Exploitation, Interactions, and Evolution
10.3.1 The Evolution of Diversity at the Herbivore Level of Plant-Insect Systems
10.3.2 Host Plants as Underexploited Resources
10.3.3 Exploitation Strategies in the Urophora-Eurytoma System
10.3.4 Interaction Patterns at the Second and Third Trophic Level: Evolutionary Adjustments in Food Webs
10.4 Conclusions
- References

Section D: Community Interactions
11 Keystone Species
11.1 Introduction
11.2 History of the Concept
11.3 The Different Kinds of Keystone Species
11.3.1 Keystone Predators
11.3.2 Keystone Herbivores
11.3.3 Keystone Pathogens
11.3.4 Keystone Competitors
11.3.5 Keystone Mutualists
11.3.6 Earth-movers
11.3.7 System Processes
11.3.8 Abiotic Processes
11.3.9 Summary of Types of Keystone Species
11.4 Identifying Keystone Species
11.4.1 Towards a General Protocol
11.5 Which Keystone Species Are Vulnerable?
11.6 Conclusions
- References
12 Redundancy in Ecosystems
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Evidence from the Fossil Record
12.3 Patterns of Energy Flow, Biomass and the Structure of Food Webs
12.3.1 Productivity and Biomass
12.3.2 Food Webs
12.4 Theoretical Models of Ecosystem Stability and Resilience
12.4.1 Species Deletion Stability
12.4.2 Possible Modelling Approaches
12.5 Observations and Experiments on Real Systems
12.5.1 Species Richness and Population Fluctuations
12.5.2 Keystone Species
12.5.3 Manipulation Experiments: General Considerations
12.5.4 Manipulation Experiments: Examples
12.6 Conclusions
- References
13 How Many Species Are Required for a Functional Ecosystem?
13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 Ecosystems
13.2 Species Diversity and Ecosystem Properties
13.2.1 Introduction
13.2.2 Species Enumerations and Ecosystem Functions
13.2.3 The Inequality of Species in Ecosystem Function
13.2.4 Species Diversity and Ecosystem Stability
13.2.5 Species Numbers and Dynamics: Year-to-Year Averaging
13.2.6 Species Numbers and Dynamics: Species Feedbacks
13.3 Species Diversity and Ecosystem Dynamics
13.3.1 Introduction
13.3.2 Experiments
13.3.3 Modelling
13.4 Conclusions
- References
14 Rare and Common Plants in Ecosystems, with Special Reference to the South-west Australian Flora
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Species Rareness or Commonness and Niche Specialization in Terms of Habitat and Nutritional Preference
14.3 Fire as a Factor in Species Commonness and Rarity
14.3.1 Strictly Serotinous Obligate Seeder Shrub or Tree Species
14.3.2 Non-Serotinous or Partially Serotinous Obligate Seeder Shrub or Tree Species
14.3.3 Obligate Seeder Species with Soil-Based Seed Reserves
14.3.4 Resprouter Species of High Recruitment Potential
14.3.5 Long-Lived, Clonally Reproducing Resprouter Species of Strictly Limited Recruitment Potential
14.3.6 Fire Ephemerals
14.3.7 Geophytes
14.4 The Significance of Morphological and Physiological Variation to Commonness or Rareness of Species
14.5 Evaluation of Commonness and Rareness in Related Taxonomic Groupings
14.6 The Importance of Biotic Factors in Species Commonness or Rareness
14.7 Genetic Correlates of Commonness and Rarity
14.8 Conclusions
- References
15 Community Diversity and Succession: The Roles of Competition, Dispersal, and Habitat Modification
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Succession
15.2.1 Environmental Constraints
15.2.2 Interspecific Trade-offs
15.2.3 Successional Theories
15.2.4 Successional Dynamics and the Existing Species Pool
15.3 Biotic Diversity
15.3.1 Spatial Heterogeneity
15.3.2 Local Recruitment Limitation
15.3.3 Succession and Biodiversity
15.3.4 Constraints, Trade-offs, and the Conservation of Biodiversity
15.4 Conclusions
- References

Section E: Ecosystem Integrity
16 Biodiversity and the Balance of Nature
16.1 What Biodiversity is Good for
16.2 A History of Ecological Stability
16.2.1 Controversy
16.3 The Stability of Populations
16.3.1 Resilience: The Example of Pest Outbreaks
16.3.2 Year-to-Year Variability in Densities
16.4 The Persistence of Communities
16.4.1 Extinction
16.4.2 Invasions
16.5 Resistance to Change
16.6 Conclusions
- References
17 Biodiversity and Function of Grazing Ecosystems
17.1 Introduction
17.1.1 Intellectual Origins
17.1.2 Conceptual Development
17.1.3 An Individual Remark
17.2 Theory and Empiricism
17.2.1 Conceptual Definitions
17.3 How to Test
17.4 Tests
17.4.1 Diversity and Productivity
17.4.2 Diversity and Stability
17.5 Stability of Species Composition to Drought and Grazing: Yellowstone Grazing Ecosystem
17.6 Conclusions: Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function
17.6.1 Biodiversity, Productivity, and Stability
17.6.2 Biodiversity, System Perpetuation, and Global Change
- References
18 Resource Supply and Disturbance as Controls over Present and Future Plant Diversity
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Future Resource and Disturbance Regimes
18.3 Plant Genetic Diversity
18.3.1 Patterns of Genetic Diversity
18.3.2 Land-Use Changes and Habitat Fragmentation
18.3.3 Climatic Effects
18.3.4 Resource Availability
18.4 Plant Species Diversity
18.4.1 Regional Patterns
18.4.2 Latitudinal Patterns
18.4.3 Paleoecological Patterns
18.4.4 Future Changes
18.5 Diversity of Plant Functional Groups
18.5.1 General Considerations
18.5.2 Control by Resources and Disturbance
18.5.3 Types of Functional Groups
18.5.4 Climatic Predictors
18.5.5 Future Diversity
18.6 Landscape Diversity
18.7 Consequences of Changing Biodiversity
18.8 Conclusions
- References
19 Ecosystem Stability, Competition, and Nutrient Cycling
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Stability of Model Ecosystems
19.3 Competition and the Loss of Diversity
19.4 Stabilizing Consequences of Competitive Interactions
19.5 Effects of Organisms on Their Physical Environment
19.6 Features Affecting Plant Fitness Under Different Nutrient Supply Conditions
19.7 Consequences of the Different Effects of Plant Species on the Nutrient Cycle
19.8 Conclusions
- References
20 Modelling Biodiversity: Latitudinal Gradient of Forest Species Diversity
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Hypotheses Explaining the Variation of Species Diversity
20.2.1 Specialization of Resource Use
20.2.2 Mode of Disturbance
20.2.3 Smaller Opportunity for Competition
20.2.4 Productivity
20.2.5 Specific Herbivores and Pathogens
20.2.6 Evolutionary/Ecological History
20.3 Tree-by-Tree Replacement: Finite Population Models
20.3.1 Spatial Scale of Disturbance and Dispersal
20.3.2 Inhibited Regeneration
20.3.3 Temporal Fluctuation of Regeneration Ability
20.4 Species Packing to Temporal Niches: Infinite Population Models
20.4.1 Model
20.4.2 Species Diversity Versus the Length of the Unfavorable Season
20.4.3 Species Diversity Versus Niche Width
20.4.4 Phenology of Coexisting Species
20.5 Conclusions
- References
21 Functional Aspects of Landscape Diversity: A Bavarian Example
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Geology and Vegetation
21.3 Land Use in Northeast Bavaria
21.3.1 Hedgerows
21.3.2 Grasslands
21.3.3 Forests
21.4 Conclusions
- References

Section F: Industrial Analogy and Policy
22 Biodiversity Issues in Computing: A Study of Networked Computer Viruses
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Stable Distributed Computer Systems
22.3 Computer Viruses
22.3.1 Duff's Virus
22.3.2 The Morris Virus
22.4 Diversity and the Spread of a Networked Virus
22.4.1 A Simple Mathematical Model
22.4.2 Functional Diversity
22.4.3 Species Diversity
22.5 Conclusions
- References
23 Biodiversity and Policy Decisions
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Conserving Biodiversity
23.3 Global Climate Change
23.4 Ecological Research and Policy Decisions
23.5 Providing Policy-Relevant Research Results
23.6 Conclusions
- References
24 Ecosystem Function of Biodiversity: A Summary
24.1 Introduction
24.2 What Is an Ecosystem?
24.3 The Regulation of Ecosystem Processes
24.4 Are There Functional Groups?
24.5 Determinants of Species Numbers
24.6 Ecosystem Integrity
24.7 Effects of Global Change on Land Use and Climate
24.8 Conclusions
- References
- Species Index