Callister, W: Fundamentals of Materials Science and Engineer

Summary 89 Equation Summary 91 Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 92 Important Terms and Concepts 93 References 94 Questions and Problems 94 Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 101 4. Polymer Structures 102 Learning Objectives 103 4.1 Introduction 103 4.2 Hydrocarbon Molecules 103 4.3 Polymer Molecules 105 4.4 The Chemistry of Polymer Molecules 106 4.5 Molecular Weight 111 4.6 Molecular Shape 113 4.7 Molecular Structure 115 4.8 Molecular Configurations 116 4.9 Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Polymers 120 4.10 Copolymers 121 4.11 Polymer Crystallinity 122 4.12 Polymer Crystals 125 Summary 128 Equation Summary 129 Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 130 Important Terms and Concepts 130 References 131 Questions and Problems 131 Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 133 5. Imperfections in Solids 134 Learning Objectives 135 5.1 Introduction 135 POINT DEFECTS 136 5.2 Point Defects in Metals 136 5.3 Point Defects in Ceramics 137 5.4 Impurities in Solids 140 5.5 Point Defects in Polymers 143 5.6 Specification of Composition 143 MISCELLANEOUS IMPERFECTIONS 147 5.7 Dislocations-Linear Defects 147 5.8 Interfacial Defects 150 5.9 Bulk or Volume Defects 153 5.10 Atomic Vibrations 153 MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION 153 5.11 Basic Concepts of Microscopy 153 Materials of Importance-Catalysts (and Surface Defects) 154 5.12 Microscopic Techniques 155 5.13 Grain Size Determination 159 Summary 161 Equation Summary 163 Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 164 Important Terms and Concepts 165 References 165 Questions and Problems 165 Design Problems 169 Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 169 6. Diffusion 170 Learning Objectives 171 6.1 Introduction 171 6.2 Diffusion Mechanisms 172 6.3 Steady-State Diffusion 173 6.4 Nonsteady-State Diffusion 175 6.5 Factors That Influence Diffusion 179 6.6 Diffusion in Semiconducting Materials 184 Material of Importance-Aluminum for Integrated Circuit Interconnects 187 6.7 Other Diffusion Paths 188 6.8 Diffusion in Ionic and Polymeric Materials 188 Summary 191 Equation Summary 192 Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 193 Important Terms and Concepts 194 References 195 Questions and Problems 195 Design Problems 198 Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 199 7. Mechanical Properties 200 Learning Objectives 201 7.1 Introduction 201 7.2 Concepts of Stress and Strain 202 ELASTIC DEFORMATION 205 7.3 Stress-Strain Behavior 205 7.4 Anelasticity 209 7.5 Elastic Properties of Materials 209 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR-METALS 211 7.6 Tensile Properties 212 7.7 True Stress and Strain 219 7.8 Elastic Recovery After Plastic Deformation 222 7.9 Compressive, Shear, and Torsional Deformation 222 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR-CERAMICS 223 7.10 Flexural Strength 223 7.11 Elastic Behavior 224 7.12 Influence of Porosity on the Mechanical Properties of Ceramics 224 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR-POLYMERS 226 7.13 Stress-Strain Behavior 226 7.14 Macroscopic Deformation 228 7.15 Viscoelastic Deformation 229 HARDNESS AND OTHER MECHANICAL PROPERTY CONSIDERATIONS 233 7.16 Hardness 233 7.17 Hardness of Ceramic Materials 238 7.18 Tear Strength and Hardness of Polymers 239 PROPERTY VARIABILITY AND DESIGN/SAFETY FACTORS 239 7.19 Variability of Material Properties 239 7.20 Design/Safety Factors 242 Summary 243 Equation Summary 246 Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 248 Important Terms and Concepts 249 References 250 Questions and Problems 250 Design Problems 258 Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 259 8. Deformation and Strengthening Mechanisms 260 Learning Objectives 261 8.1 Introduction 261 DEFORMATION MECHANISMS FOR METALS 261 8.2 Historical 262 8.3 Basic Concepts of Dislocations 262 8.4 Characteristics of Dislocations 264 8.5 Slip Systems 265 8.6 Slip in Single Crystals 267 8.7 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Metals 270 8.8 Deformation by Twinning 272 MECHANISMS OF STRENGTHENING IN METALS 273 8.9 Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction 273 8.10 Solid-Solution Strengthening 275 8.11 Strain Hardening 276 RECOVERY, RECRYSTALLIZATION, AND GRAIN GROWTH 279 8.12 Recovery 279 8.13 Recrystallization 280 8.14 Grain Growth 284 DEFORMATION MECHANISMS FOR CERAMIC MATERIALS 285 8.15 Crystalline Ceramics 285 8.16 Noncrystalline Ceramics 286 MECHANISMS OF DEFORMATION AND FOR STRENGTHENING OF POLYMERS 287 8.17 Deformation of Semicrystalline Polymers 287 8.18 Factors That Influence the Mechanical Properties of Semicrystalline Polymers 290 Materials of Importance-Shrink-Wrap Polymer Films 292 8.19 Deformation of Elastomers 293 Summary 295 Equation Summary 298 Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 299 Important Terms and Concepts 302 References 302 Questions and Problems 302 Design Problems 307 Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 307 9. Failure 308 Learning Objectives 309 9.1 Introduction 309 FRACTURE 310 9.2 Fundamentals of Fracture 310 9.3 Ductile Fracture 310 9.4 Brittle Fracture 312 9.5 Principles of Fracture Mechanics 314 9.6 Brittle Fracture of Ceramics 322 9.7 Fracture of Polymers 326 9.8 Fracture Toughness Testing 328 FATIGUE 332 9.9 Cyclic Stresses 333 9.10 The S-N Curve 334 9.11 Fatigue in Polymeric Materials 337 9.12 Crack Initiation and Propagation 337 9.13 Factors That Affect Fatigue Life 339 9.14 Environmental Effects 341 CREEP 342 9.15 Generalized Creep Behavior 343 9.16 Stress and Temperature Effects 344 9.17 Data Extrapolation Methods 346 9.18 Alloys for High-Temperature Use 347 9.19 Creep in Ceramic and Polymeric Materials 347 Summary 348 Equation Summary 351 Important Terms and Concepts 352 References 352 Questions and Problems 352 Design Problems 357 Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 357 10. Phase Diagrams 359 Learning Objectives 360 10.1 Introduction 360 DEFINITIONS AND BASIC CONCEPTS 360 10.2 Solubility Limit 361 10.3 Phases 362 10.4 Microstructure 362 10.5 Phase Equilibria 362 10.6 One-Component (or Unary) Phase Diagrams 363 BINARY PHASE DIAGRAMS 365 10.7 Binary Isomorphous Systems 365 10.8 Interpretation of Phase Diagrams 367 10.9 Development of Microstructure in Isomorphous Alloys 371 10.10 Mechanical Properties of Isomorphous Alloys 374 10.11 Binary Eutectic Systems 374 10.12 Development of Microstructure in Eutectic Alloys 380 Materials of Importance-Lead-Free Solders 381 10.13 Equilibrium Diagrams Having Intermediate Phases or Compounds 387 10.14 Eutectoid and Peritectic Reactions 390 10.15 Congruent Phase Transformations 391 10.16 Ceramic Phase Diagrams 391 10.17 Ternary Phase Diagrams 395 10.18 The Gibbs Phase Rule 396 THE IRON-CARBON SYSTEM 398 10.19 The Iron-Iron Carbide (Fe-Fe3C) Phase Diagram 398 10.20 Development of Microstructure in Iron-Carbon Alloys 401 10.21 The Influence of Other Alloying Elements 408 Summary 409 Equation Summary 411 Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 412 Important Terms and Concepts 412 References 414 Questions and Problems 414 Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 420 11. Phase Transformations 421 Learning Objectives 422 11.1 Introduction 422 PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS IN METALS 422 11.2 Basic Concepts 423 11.3 The Kinetics of Phase Transformations 423 11.4 Metastable Versus Equilibrium States 433 MICROSTRUCTURAL AND PROPERTY CHANGES IN IRON-CARBON ALLOYS 434 11.5 Isothermal Transformation Diagrams 434 11.6 Continuous-Cooling Transformation Diagrams 445 11.7 Mechanical Behavior of Iron-Carbon Alloys 448 11.8 Tempered Martensite 452 11.9 Review of Phase Transformations and Mechanical Properties for Iron-Carbon Alloys 455 Materials of Importance-Shape-Memory Alloys 456 PRECIPITATION HARDENING 459 11.10 Heat Treatments 459 11.11 Mechanism of Hardening 461 11.12 Miscellaneous Considerations 464 CRYSTALLIZATION, MELTING, AND GLASS TRANSITION PHENOMENA IN POLYMERS 464 11.13 Crystallization 464 11.14 Melting 465 11.15 The Glass Transition 466 11.16 Melting and Glass Transition Temperatures 466 11.17 Factors That Influence Melting and Glass Transition Temperatures 467 Summary 469 Equation Summary 472 Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 473 Important Terms and Concepts 475 References 475 Questions and Problems 476 Design Problems 480 Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 481 12. Electrical Properties 483 Learning Objectives 484 12.1 Introduction 484 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION 484 12.2 Ohm's Law 484 12.3 Electrical Conductivity 485 12.4 Electronic and Ionic Conduction 486 12.5 Energy Band Structures in Solids 486 12.6 Conduction in Terms of Band and Atomic Bonding Models 488 12.7 Electron Mobility 490 12.8 Electrical Resistivity of Metals 491 12.9 Electrical Characteristics of Commercial Alloys 494 Materials of Importance-Aluminum Electrical Wires 494 SEMICONDUCTIVITY 496 12.10 Intrinsic Semiconduction 496 12.11 Extrinsic Semiconduction 499 12.12 The Temperature Dependence of Carrier Concentration 502 12.13 Factors That Affect Carrier Mobility 503 12.14 The Hall Effect 507 12.15 Semiconductor Devices 509 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN IONIC CERAMICS AND IN POLYMERS 515 12.16 Conduction in Ionic Materials 516 12.17 Electrical Properties of Polymers 516 DIELECTRIC BEHAVIOR 517 12.18 Capacitance 517 12.19 Field Vectors and Polarization 519 12.20 Types of Polarization 522 12.21 Frequency Dependence of the Dielectric Constant 524 12.22 Dielectric Strength 525 12.23 Dielectric Materials 525 OTHER ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS 525 12.24 Ferroelectricity 525 12.25 Piezoelectricity 526 Summary 527 Equation Summary 530 Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 531 Important Terms and Concepts 535 References 535 Questions and Problems 535 Design Problems 539 Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 540 13. Types and Applications of Materials 542 Learning Objectives 543 13.1 Introduction 543 TYPES OF METAL ALLOYS 543 13.2 Ferrous Alloys 543 13.3 Nonferrous Alloys 556 Materials of Importance-Metal Alloys Used for Euro Coins 565 TYPES OF CERAMICS 566 13.4 Glasses 567 13.5 Glass-Ceramics 567 13.6 Clay Products 569 13.7 Refractories 569 13.8 Abrasives 571 13.9 Cements 571 13.10 Advanced Ceramics 573 Materials of Importance-Piezoelectric Ceramics 575 13.11 Diamond and Graphite 576 TYPES OF POLYMERS 577 13.12 Plastics 577 Materials of Importance-Phenolic Billiard Balls 580 13.13 Elastomers 580 13.14 Fibers 582 13.15 Miscellaneous Applications 583 13.16 Advanced Polymeric Materials 584 Summary 588 Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 590 Important Terms and Concepts 592 References 592 Questions and Problems 592 Design Questions 593 Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 594 14. Synthesis, Fabrication, and Processing of Materials 595 Learning Objectives 596 14.1 Introduction 596 FABRICATION OF METALS 596 14.2 Forming Operations 597 14.3 Casting 598 14.4 Miscellaneous Techniques 600 THERMAL PROCESSING OF METALS 601 14.5 Annealing Processes 601 14.6 Heat Treatment of Steels 604 FABRICATION OF CERAMIC MATERIALS 613 14.7 Fabrication and Processing of Glasses and Glass-Ceramics 615 14.8 Fabrication and Processing of Clay Products 620 14.9 Powder Pressing 624 14.10 Tape Casting 626 SYNTHESIS AND FABRICATION OF POLYMERS 627 14.11 Polymerization 627 14.12 Polymer Additives 630 14.13 Forming Techniques for Plastics 631 14.14 Fabrication of Elastomers 634 14.15 Fabrication of Fibers and Films 634 Summary 635 Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 637 Important Terms and Concepts 641 References 642 Questions and Problems 642 Design Problems 644 Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 645 15. Composites 646 Learning Objectives 647 15.1 Introduction 647 PARTICLE-REINFORCED COMPOSITES 649 15.2 Large-Particle Composites 649 15.3 Dispersion-Strengthened Composites 653 FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES 653 15.4 Influence of Fiber Length 654 15.5 Influence of Fiber Orientation and Concentration 655 15.6 The Fiber Phase 663 15.7 The Matrix Phase 665 15.8 Polymer-Matrix Composites 665 15.9 Metal-Matrix Composites 671 15.10 Ceramic-Matrix Composites 672 15.11 Carbon-Carbon Composites 674 15.12 Hybrid Composites 674 15.13 Processing of Fiber-Reinforced Composites 675 STRUCTURAL COMPOSITES 677 15.14 Laminar Composites 677 15.15 Sandwich Panels 678 Materials of Importance-Nanocomposite Barrier Coatings 679 Summary 681 Equation Summary 683 Important Terms and Concepts 684 References 684 Questions and Problems 684 Design Problems 687 Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 688 16. Corrosion and Degradation of Materials 689 Learning Objectives 690 16.1 Introduction 690 CORROSION OF METALS 691 16.2 Electrochemical Considerations 691 16.3 Corrosion Rates 697 16.4 Prediction of Corrosion Rates 699 16.5 Passivity 705 16.6 Environmental Effects 706 16.7 Forms of Corrosion 707 16.8 Corrosion Environments 714 16.9 Corrosion Prevention 715 16.10 Oxidation 717 CORROSION OF CERAMIC MATERIALS 720 DEGRADATION OF POLYMERS 720 16.11 Swelling and Dissolution 720 16.12 Bond Rupture 722 16.13 Weathering 724 Summary 724 Equation Summary 726 Important Terms and Concepts 728 References 728 Questions and Problems 728 Design Problems 731 Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 732 17. Thermal Properties 733 Learning Objectives 734 17.1 Introduction 734 17.2 Heat Capacity 734 17.3 Thermal Expansion 738 Materials of Importance-Invar and Other Low-Expansion Alloys 740 17.4 Thermal Conductivity 741 17.5 Thermal Stresses 744 Summary 746 Equation Summary 747 Important Terms and Concepts 748 References 748 Questions and Problems 748 Design Problems 750 Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 750 18. Magnetic Properties 751 Learning Objectives 752 18.1 Introduction 752 18.2 Basic Concepts 752 18.3 Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism 756 18.4 Ferromagnetism 758 18.5 Antiferromagnetism and Ferrimagnetism 759 18.6 The Influence of Temperature on Magnetic Behavior 763 18.7 Domains and Hysteresis 764 18.8 Magnetic Anisotropy 767 18.9 Soft Magnetic Materials 768 Materials of Importance-An Iron-Silicon Alloy That Is Used in Transformer Cores 769 18.10 Hard Magnetic Materials 770 18.11 Magnetic Storage 773 18.12 Superconductivity 776 Summary 779 Equation Summary 781 Important Terms and Concepts 782 References 782 Questions and Problems 782 Design Problems 785 Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 785 19. Optical Properties 786 Learning Objectives 787 19.1 Introduction 787 BASIC CONCEPTS 787 19.2 Electromagnetic Radiation 787 19.3 Light Interactions With Solids 789 19.4 Atomic and Electronic Interactions 790 OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS 791 OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF NONMETALS 792 19.5 Refraction 792 19.6 Reflection 794 19.7 Absorption 794 19.8 Transmission 798 19.9 Color 798 19.10 Opacity and Translucency in Insulators 800 APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL PHENOMENA 801 19.11 Luminescence 801 19.12 Photoconductivity 801 Materials of Importance-Light-Emitting Diodes 802 19.13 Lasers 804 19.14 Optical Fibers in Communications 808 Summary 810 Equation Summary 812 Important Terms and Concepts 813 References 813 Questions and Problems 814 Design Problem 815 Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 815 20. Economic, Environmental, and Societal Issues in Materials Science and Engineering 816 Learning Objectives 817 20.1 Introduction 817 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS 817 20.2 Component Design 818 20.3 Materials 818 20.4 Manufacturing Techniques 818 ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIETAL CONSIDERATIONS 819 20.5 Recycling Issues in Materials Science and Engineering 821 Materials of Importance-Biodegradable and Biorenewable Polymers/Plastics 824 Summary 826 References 827 Design Questions 827 Appendix A The International System of Units (SI) 828 Appendix B Properties of Selected Engineering Materials 830 B.1 Density 830 B.2 Modulus of Elasticity 833 B.3 Poisson's Ratio 837 B.4 Strength and Ductility 838 B.5 Plane Strain Fracture Toughness 843 B.6 Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 845 B.7 Thermal Conductivity 848 B.8 Specific Heat 851 B.9 Electrical Resistivity 854 B.10 Metal Alloy Compositions 857 Appendix C Costs and Relative Costs for Selected Engineering Materials 859 Appendix D Repeat Unit Structures for Common Polymers 864 Appendix E Glass Transition and Melting Temperatures for Common Polymeric Materials 868 Mechanical Engineering Online Support Module Library of Case Studies Glossary 869 Answers to Selected Problems 882 Index 886