Physiology of Behavior

59 Termination of Postsynaptic Potentials 60 Effects of Postsynaptic Potentials: Neural Integration 62 Autoreceptors 62 Other Types of Synapses 63 Nonsynaptic Chemical Communication 64 Interim Summary 66 SUGGESTED READINGS 67 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 67 Chapter 3 Structure of the Nervous System 68 BASIC FEATURES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 69 An Overview 72 Meninges 72 The Ventricular System and Production of CSF 73 Interim Summary 76 THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 76 Development of the Central Nervous System 77 The Forebrain 82 The Midbrain 91 The Hindbrain 93 The Spinal Cord 94 Interim Summary 95 THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 96 Spinal Nerves 96 Cranial Nerves 97 The Autonomic Nervous System 97 Interim Summary 101 SUGGESTED READINGS 101 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 101 Chapter 4 Psychopharmacology 102 PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOPHARMACOLOGY 104 Pharmacokinetics 104 Drug Effectiveness 107 Effects of Repeated Administration 108 Placebo Effects 109 Interim Summary 110 SITES OF DRUG ACTION 110 Effects on Production of Neurotransmitters 111 Effects on Storage and Release of Neurotransmitters 111 Effects on Receptors 112 Effects on Reuptake or Destruction of Neurotransmitters 113 Interim Summary 114 NEUROTRANSMITTERS AND NEUROMODULATORS 114 Acetylcholine 115 The Monamines 118 Amino Acids 124 Peptides 127 Lipids 128 Nucleosides 130 Soluble Gases 130 Interim Summary 131 SUGGESTED READINGS 133 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 133 Chapter 5 Methods and Strategies of Research 134 EXPERIMENTAL ABLATION 136 Evaluating the Behavioral Effects of Brain Damage 136 Producing Brain Lesions 136 Stereotaxic Surgery138 Histological Methods 139 Tracing Neural Connections 143 Studying the Structure of the Living Human Brain 146 Interim Summary 149 RECORDING AND STIMULATING NEURAL ACTIVITY 151 Recording Neural Activity 151 Recording the Brain's Metabolic Activity 153 Stimulating Neural Activity 155 Interim Summary 159 NEUROCHEMICAL METHODS 160 Finding Neurons That Produce Particular Neurochemicals 160 Localizing Particular Receptors 162 Measuring Chemicals Secreted in the Brain 163 Interim Summary 164 GENETIC METHODS 165 Twin Studies 166 Adoption Studies 166 Targeted Mutations 166 Antisense Oligonucleotides 167 Interim Summary 167 SUGGESTED READINGS 167 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 168 Chapter 6 Vision 169 THE STIMULUS 171 ANATOMY OF THE VISUAL SYSTEM 172 The Eyes 172 Photoreceptors 174 Connections Between Eye and Brain 176 Interim Summary 178 CODING OF VISUAL INFORMATION IN THE RETINA 179 Coding of Light and Dark 179 Coding of Color 181 Interim Summary 185 ANALYSIS OF VISUAL INFORMATION: ROLE OF THE STRIATE CORTEX 186 Anatomy of the Striate Cortex 186 Orientation and Movement 186 Spatial Frequency 187 Retinal Disparity 189 Color 189 Modular Organization of the Striate Cortex 190 Interim Summary 191 ANALYSIS OF VISUAL INFORMATION: ROLE OF THE VISUAL ASSOCIATION CORTEX 192 Two Streams of Visual Analysis 192 Perception of Color 195 Perception of Form 196 Perception of Movement 202 Perception of Spatial Location 206 Interim Summary 209 SUGGESTED READINGS 211 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 211 Chapter 7 Audition, the Body Senses, and the Chemical Sense 212 AUDIITON 212 The Stimulus 212 Anatomy of the Ear 214 Auditory Hair Cells and the Transduction of Auditory Information 216 The Auditory Pathway 218 Perception of Pitch 221 Perception of Loudness 224 Perception of Timbre 224 Perception of Spatial Location 225 Perception of Complex Sounds 229 Interim Summary 233 VESTIBULAR SYSTEM 234 Anatomy of the Vestibular Apparatus 234 The Receptor Cells 235 The Vestibular Pathway 235 Interim Summary 237 SOMATOSENSES 237 The Stimuli 237 Anatomy of the Skin and Its Receptive Organs 238 Perception of Cutaneous Stimulation 238 The Somatosensory Pathways 242 Perception of Pain 243 Interim Summary 248 GUSTATION 250 The Stimuli 250 Anatomy of the Taste Buds and Gustatory Cells 250 Perception of Gustatory Information 251 The Gustatory Pathway 253 Interim Summary 254 OLFACTION 255 The Stimulus 255 Anatomy of the Olfactory Apparatus 255 Transduction of Olfactory Information 257 Perception of Specific Odors 257 Interim Summary 260 SUGGESTED READINGS 260 ADDITIONAL RESOURC ES 261 Chapter 8 Control of Movement 262 MUSCLES 263 Skeletal Muscle 263 Smooth Muscle 266 Cardiac Muscle 267 Interim Summary 267 REFLEXIVE CONTROL OF MOVEMENT 268 The Monosynaptic Stretch Reflex 268 The Gamma Motor System 270 Polysynaptic Reflexes 270 Interim Summary 272 CONTROL OF MOVEMENT BY THE BRAIN 272 Organization of the Motor Cortex 273 Cortical Control of Movement: The Descending Pathways 274 Planning and Initiating Movements: Role of the Motor Association Cortex 277 Imitating and Comprehending Movements: Role of the Mirror Neuron System 280 Control of Reaching and Grasping 283 Deficits of Skilled Movements: The Apraxias 284 The Basal Ganglia 285 The Cerebellum 289 The Reticular Formation 292 Interim Summary 293 SUGGESTED READINGS 294 ADDITONAL RESOURCES 294 Chapter 9 Sleep and Biological Rhythms 295 A PHYSIOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIORAL DESCRIPTION OF SLEEP 295 Stages of Sleep 295 Mental Activity During Sleep 300 Interim Summary 301 DISORDERS OF SLEEP 301 Insomnia 301 Narcolepsy 302 REM Sleep Behavior Disorder 304 Problems Associated with Slow-Wave Sleep 304 Interim Summary 305 WHY DO WE SLEEP? 306 Functions of Slow-Wave Sleep 306 Functions of REM Sleep 308 Sleep and Learning 309 Interim Summary 310 PHYSIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS OF SLEEP AND WAKING 311 Chemical Control of Sleep 311 Neural Control of Arousal 312 Neural Control of Slow-Wave Sleep 314 Neural Control of REM Sleep 317 Interim Summary 320 BIOLOGICAL CLOCKS 321 Circadian Rhythms and Zeitgebers 321 The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus 322 Control of Seasonal Rhythms: The Pineal Gland and Melatonin 326 Changes in Circadian Rhythms: Shift Work and Jet Lag 327 Interim Summary 328 SUGGESTED READINGS 328 SUGGESTED READINGS 328 Chapter 10 Reproductive Behavior 329 SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT 330 Production of Gametes and Fertilization 330 Development of the Sex Organs 331 Sexual Maturation 334 Interim Summary 336 HORMONAL CONTROL OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 337 Hormonal Control of Female Reproductive Cycles 338 Hormonal Control of Sexual Behavior of Laboratory Animals 338 Organizational Effects of Androgens on Behavior: Masculinization and Defeminization 340 Effects of Pheromones 341 Human Sexual Behavior 344 Sexual Orientation 346 Interim Summary 352 NEURAL CONTROL OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 353 Males 353 Females 355 Formation of Pair Bonds 358 Interim Summary 359 PARENTAL BEHAVIOR 360 Maternal Behavior of Rodents 360 Hormonal Control of Maternal Behavior 361 Neural Control of Maternal Behavior 362 Neural Control of Paternal Behavior 364 Interim Summary 364 SUGGESTED READINGS 365 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 365 Chapter 11 Emotion 366 EMOTIONS AS RESPONSE PATTERNS 367 Fear 368 Anger, Aggression, and Impulse Control 372 Hormonal Control of Aggressive Behavior 380 Interim Summary 384 COMMUNICATION OF EMOTIONS 385 Facial Expression of Emotions: Innate Responses 385 Neural Basis of the Communication of Emotions: Recognition 386 Neural Basis of the Communication of Emotions: Expression 391 Interim Summary 395 FEELINGS OF EMOTIONS 396 The James-Lange Theory 396 Feedback from Simulated Emotions 397 Interim Summary 399 SUGGESTED READINGS 399 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 399 Chapter 12 Ingestive Behavior 400 PHYSIOLOGICAL REGULATORY MECHANISMS 401 DRINKING 402 Some Facts About Fluid Balance 403 Two Types of Thirst 404 Neural Mechanisms of Thirst 407 Interim Summary 408 EATING: SOME FACTS ABOUT METABOLISM 409 Interim Summary 412 WHAT STARTS A MEAL? 412 Signals from the Environment 412 Signals from the Stomach 413 Metabolic Signals 414 Interim Summary 415 WHAT STOPS A MEAL? 416 Head Factors 416 Gastric Factors 416 Intestinal Factors 416 Liver Factors 417 Insulin 418 Long-Term Satiety: Signals from Adipose Tissue 418 Interim Summary 419 BRAIN MECHANISMS 420 Brain Stem 420 Hypothalamus 420 Interim Summary 426 OBESITY 427 Possible Causes 427 Treatment 430 Interim Summary 433 ANOREXIA NERVOSA/BULIMIA NERVOSA 434 Possible Causes 435 Treatment 436 Interim Summary 437 SUGGESTED READINGS 438 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 438 Chapter 13 Learning and Memory 439 THE NATURE OF LEARNING 440 Interim Summary 443 SYNAPTIC PLASTICITY: LONG-TERM POTENTIATION AND LONG-TERM DEPRESSION 444 Induction of Long-Term Potentiation 444 Role of NMDA Receptors 446 Mechanisms of Synaptic Plasticity 448 Long-Term Depression 452 Other Forms of Long-Term Potentiation 453 Interim Summary 454 PERCEPTUAL LEARNING 454 Learning to Recognize Stimuli 454 Perceptual Short-Term Memory 456 Interim Summary 457 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING 458 Interim Summary 459 INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING 460 Basal Ganglia 460 Reinforcement 461 Interim Summary 465 RELATIONAL LEARNING 465 Human Anterograde Amnesia 465 Spared Learning Abilities 467 Declarative and Nondeclarative Memories 468 Anatomy of Anterograde Amnesia 469 Role of the Hippocampal Formation in Consolidation of Declarative Memories 471 Episodic and Semantic Memories 475 Spatial Memory 476 Relational Learning in Laboratory Animals 477 Interim Summary 483 SUGGESTED READINGS 484 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 484 Chapter 14 Human Communication 485 SPEECH PRODUCTION AND COMPREHENSION: BRAIN MECHANISMS 486 Lateralization 486 Speech Production 487 Speech Comprehension 491 Aphasia in Deaf People 501 Prosody: Rhythm, Tone, and Emphasis in Speech 502 Stuttering 504 Interim Summary 505 DISORDERS OF READING AND WRITING 507 Relation to Aphasia 507 Pure Alexia 507 Toward an Understanding of Reading 508 Toward an Understanding of Writing 515 Developmental Dyslexias 517 Interim Summary 518 SUGGESTED READINGS 519 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 519 Chapter 15 Neurological Disorders 520 TUMORS 521 SEIZURE DISORDERS 523 CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENTS 527 Interim Summary 531 DISORDERS OF DEVELOPMENT 532 Toxic Chemicals 532 Inherited Metabolic Disorders 533 Down Syndrome 534 Interim Summary 534 DEGENERATIVE DISORDERS 535 Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies 535 Parkinson's Disease 537 Huntington's Disease 541 Alzheimer's Disease 543 Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis 548 Multiple Sclerosis 549 Korsakoff's Syndrome 550 Interim Summary 551 DISORDERS CAUSED BY INFECTIOUS DISEASES 552 Interim Summary 553 SUGGESTED READINGS 553 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 553 Chapter 16 Schizophrenia and the Affective Disorders 554 SCHIZOPHRENIA 556 Description 556 Heritability 557 Pharmacology of Schizophrenia: The Dopamine Hypothesis 558 Schizophrenia as a Neurological Disorder 560 Interim Summary 50 MAJOR AFFECTIVE DISORDERS 572 Description 572 Heritability 573 Biological Treatments 573 The Monoamine Hypothesis 576 The Amygdala and the Prefrontal Cortex: Role of the 5-HT Transporter 577 Role of Neurogensis 580 Role of Circadian Rhythms 581 Interim Summary 583 SUGGESTED READINGS 584 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 584 Chapter 17 Anxiety Disorders, Autistic Disorder, Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, and Stress Disorders 585 ANXIETY DISORDERS 587 Panic Disorder, Generalized Anxiety Disorder, and Social Anxiety Disorder 587 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder 589 Interim Summary 593 AUTISTIC DISORDER 593 Description 593 Possible Causes 594 Interim Summary 597 ATTENTION-DEFICIT/HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER 598 Description 598 Possible Causes 598 Interim Summary 601 STRESS DISORDERS 601 Physiology of the Stress Response 601 Health Effects of Long-Term Stress 603 Effects of Stress on the Brain 604 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder 606 Psychoneuroimmunology 608 Interim Summary 611 SUGGESTED READINGS 612 ADDITIONAL RESOURCES 612 Chapter 18 Drug Abuse 613 COMMON FEATURES OF ADDICTION A Little Background Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement Craving and Relapse Interim Summary COMMONLY ABUSED DRUGS Opiates Stimulant Drugs: Cocaine and Amphetamine Nicotine Alcohol Cannabis Interim Summary HEREDITY AND DRUG ABUSE Interim Summary THERAPY FOR DRUG ABUSE Interim Summary SUGGESTED READINGS ADDITIONAL RESOURCES REFERENCES 641 NAME INDEX SUBJECT INDEX