An Introduction to Sociolinguistics

Discourse 96Metaphorical and situational code-switching 97Accommodation and audience design 98The Markedness Model 101Multilingual identities 102Chapter Summary 105Exercises 106Further Reading 109References 1105 Contact Languages: Structural Consequences of Social Factors 114Key Concepts 114Lingua Francas 115Pidgin and Creole Languages: Definitions 116Connections between P/C languages and second language acquisition 119Pidgin and Creole Formation 120Theories of creole genesis 121Geographical Distribution 123Linguistic Characteristics of P/C Languages 124Phonology 125Morphosyntax 125Vocabulary 126From Pidgin to Creole and Beyond 127Creole continuum? 129Other Contact Varieties: Mixed Languages 131Chapter Summary 133Exercises 133Further Reading 134References 134Part II Inherent Variety 1396 Language Variation 141Key Concepts 141Regional Variation 142Mapping dialects 142Methods in dialectology 145Dialect mixture and free variation 147Linguistic atlases 147The Linguistic Variable 148Variants 149Types of linguistic variables 149Variation in New York City 150Variation in Norwich 150Variation in Detroit 151Indicators, markers, and stereotypes 151Social Variation 152Social class membership 153Social networks 157Data Collection and Analysis 157The observer's paradox 157The sociolinguistic interview 158Sampling 159Apparent time and real time 161Correlations: dependent and independent variables 161Quantitative sociolinguistics 162Chapter Summary 165Exercises 165Further Reading 166References 1667 Three Waves of Variation Studies 169Key Concepts 169The First Wave of Variation Studies 170Early work on gender variation 170The fourth floor 172Variation in Norwich 175Variation in Detroit 177Variation in Glasgow 180Linguistic constraints on variation 181The Second Wave of Variation Studies 185Social networks in Belfast 185Gender variation in the second wave 187Jocks and burnouts 188The Third Wave of Variation Studies 189Stance 190Chapter Summary 192Exercises 192Further Reading 193References 1948 Language Variation and Change 196Key Concepts 196The Traditional View 197Externally motivated change 197Trees and waves 199Some Changes in Progress 199The Northern Cities Vowel Shift 201Change across space: urban centers and physical barriers 202Change over time or age-grading? 203Martha's Vineyard 204Gender and language change 208Language change and the linguistic marketplace 211The Process of Change 213Change from above and below 214Social network theory and language change 216Lifestyle and language change 217Lexical diff usion 218Chapter Summary 219Exercises 219Further Reading 220References 221Part III Language and Interaction 2259 Ethnographic Approaches in Sociolinguistics 227Key Concepts 227The Ethnography of Communication 230Communicative competence 230SPEAKING 232Ethnography and beyond 234Ethnomethodology 235Background knowledge as part of communication 236Commonsense knowledge and practical reasoning 237Garfinkel and his students: studies in ethnomethodology 239Ethnomethodology and conversation analysis 241Linguistic Ethnography 241Chapter Summary 243Exercises 243Further Reading 245References 24510 Pragmatics 248Key Concepts 248Speech Acts 249Performatives 249Locutions, illocutionary acts, and perlocutions 251Implicature 253Maxims 253The concept of cooperation 255Politeness 256Face 256Positive and negative politeness 257Politeness world-wide 258Politeness and indirectness 261Pronouns 263Tu and vous: power and solidarity 263Pronouns and positioning 266Naming and Titles 266Fluidity and change in address terms 269Chinese comrades 270Chapter Summary 272Exercises 272Further Reading 275References 27611 Discourse Analysis 280Key Concepts 280Conversation Analysis 281Adjacency pairs 283Openings 284Closings 285Turn-taking 287Repair 289Institutional talk 290Interactional Sociolinguistics 291Data and methodologies 293Contextualization 295Stance 296Intercultural communication 297Critical Discourse Analysis 298Contrasts and critiques 299Methodologies and connections 299Chapter Summary 302Exercises 303Further Reading 304References 305Part IV Sociolinguistics and Social Justice 30912 Language, Gender, and Sexuality 311Key Concepts 311Defining Terms: Gender, Sex Category, and Sexuality 312Sexist Language 314Grammatical gender marking 315Language change 316Discourses of Gender and Sexuality 319Some common Discourses 319Deficit, Dominance, Difference, and Identities 321Women's language 324Dominance 324Difference 325Gender and sexuality identities 328Chapter Summary 332Exercises 332Further Reading 333References 33413 Sociolinguistics and Education 339Key Concepts 339Social Dialects and Education 341Restricted and elaborated codes 341Difference not defi cit 343Role of the home dialect in education 345African American Vernacular English and education 346Applied sociolinguistics 350Multilingual Education 351Ideologies 351Use of minority languages in the classroom 352Elite and immigrant bilingualism 354Education and World-Wide English 356Circles of English 356Elite closure 357English in Europe 359Chapter Summary 360Exercises 360Further Reading 361References 36214 Language Policy and Planning 367Key Concepts 367Terminology, Concepts, and Development of the Field 367Types of language planning 368The intellectual history of LPP 371Data and methods 372LPP and Nationalization 373LPP in Turkey: orthography and purity 373LPP in the Soviet Union and the post-Soviet era:from Russifi cation to nationalization 375Official monolingualism in France 377Multilingual policy in Belgium 377LPP in Post- and Neo-Colonial Contexts 378Kenya 379India 380LPP in the United States and Canada 381The United States of America 381Canada 383Multilingual Countries and LPP 385Papua New Guinea 385Singapore 386Endangered Languages and the Spread of English 387Endangered languages 387English world-wide 388Chapter Summary 392Exercises 392Further Reading 392References 393Glossary 398Index 422