Fertilization in Protozoa and Metazoan Animals

Reproductive Strategies and Reproductive Cycle.- 4.1.1 Design of Reproductive System.- 4.1.2 Gametogenesis and Fertilization.- 4.2 Cellular and Molecular Aspects of Fertilization.- 5 Platyhelminthes.- 5.1 Reproductive Strategies and Reproductive Cycle.- 5.1.1 Design of Reproductive System.- 5.1.2 Gametogenesis and Fertilization.- 5.2 Cellular and Molecular Aspects of Fertilization.- 6 Rhynchocoela (Nemertea, Nemertinea).- 6.1 Reproductive Strategies and Reproductive Cycle.- 6.1.1 Design of Reproductive System.- 6.1.2 Gametogenesis and Fertilization.- 6.2 Cellular and Molecular Aspects of Fertilization.- 7 Nematoda.- 7.1 Reproductive Strategies and Reproductive Cycle.- 7.1.1 Design of Reproductive System.- 7.1.2 Gametogenesis and Fertilization.- 7.2 Cellular and Molecular Aspects of Fertilization.- 7.2.1 Sperm.- 7.2.2 Oocytes.- 7.2.3 Fertilization.- 8 Mollusca.- 8.1 Reproductive Strategies and Reproductive Cycle.- 8.1.1 Design of Reproductive System.- 8.1.2 Gametogenesis and Fertilization.- 8.2 Cellular and Molecular Aspects of Fertilization.- 8.2.1 Sperm.- 8.2.2 Oocytes.- 8.2.3 Fertilization.- 9 Annelida.- 9.1 Reproductive Strategies and Reproductive Cycle.- 9.1.1 Design of Reproductive System.- 9.1.2 Gametogenesis and Fertilization.- 9.2 Cellular and Molecular Aspects of Fertilization.- 10 Arthropoda.- 10.1 Reproductive Strategies and Reproductive Cycle.- 10.1.1 Design of Reproductive System.- 10.1.2 Gametogenesis and Fertilization.- 10.2 Cellular and Molecular Aspects of Fertilization.- 10.2.1 Sperm.- 10.2.2 Oocytes.- 10.2.3 Fertilization.- 11 Echinodermata.- 11.1 Reproductive Strategies and Reproductive Cycle.- 11.1.1 Design of Reproductive System.- 11.1.2 Gametogenesis and Fertilization.- 11.2 Cellular and Molecular Aspects of Fertilization.- 11.2.1 The Unfertilized Egg.- 11.2.2 Sperm.- 11.2.3 Sperm Activation.- 11.2.4 Fertilization.- 11.3 MPF and MAP Kinases During Meiotic Maturation and Fertilization.- 12 Protochordata.- 12.1 Reproductive Strategies and Reproductive Cycle.- 12.1.1 Design of Reproductive System.- 12.1.2 Gametogenesis and Fertilization.- 12.2 Cellular and Molecular Aspects of Fertilization.- 12.2.1 Sperm.- 12.2.2 Oocytes.- 12.2.3 Spawning of Gametes and Fertilization.- 12.2.4 Calcium Oscillations.- 12.2.5 Block to Polyspermy.- 12.3 MPF and MAP Kinases During Meiotic Maturation and Fertilization.- References.- 3 Fertilization in Fishes.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Structural Preparation of Oocyte and Spermatozoon for Fertilization.- 2.1 Egg.- 2.1.1 Chorion.- 2.1.2 Micropyle.- 2.1.3 Cortical Layer.- 2.1.4 Sperm Entry Site.- 2.1.5 Nucleus.- 2.2 Spermatozoon.- 3 Oocyte Maturation for Acquisition of Fertilizability.- 4 Interaction and Membrane Fusion Between Gametes.- 4.1 Behavior and Fertilizability of Spermatozoa.- 4.2 Sperm-Egg Interaction.- 4.3 Sperm-Egg Membrane Fusion.- 5 Responses of Egg to Membrane Fusion with Spermatozoon.- 5.1 Change in Membrane Potential.- 5.2 Fertilization Wave and Wave of Increase in Cytoplasmic Ca2+.- 5.3 Exocytosis of Cortical Alveoli.- 5.4 Mechanism of Propagative Increase in Cytoplasmic Ca2+and pH.- 5.5 Relationship Between Wave of Increase in Cytoplasmic Ca2+and Exocytosis Wave.- 5.6 Perivitelline Space Formation and Change in Chorion.- 5.7 Fertilization Cone and Sperm Incorporation.- 6 Polyspermy-Preventing Mechanism.- 7 Formation of Male and Female Pronuclei.- 7.1 Progression of Second Meiotic Metaphase to Interphase.- 7.2 Breakdown of Nuclear Envelope and Chromatin Decondensation.- 7.3 Pronucleus Formation and MPF Activity.- 7.4 DNA Synthesis and Pronucleus Formation.- 8 Migration and Karyogamy of Female and Male Pronuclei.- 9 Fertilization Without an Increase in Cytoplasmic Ca2+and Exocytosis of Cortical Alveoli.- References.- 4 Fertilization in Amphibians.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Interactions of Sperm with Oocyte Investments and Oocyte Membrane.- 2.1 Interactions of Sperm with Jelly Layers.- 2.2 Sperm-Binding to the Vitelline Envelope.- 2.3 Acrosome Reaction.- 2.4 Interactions Between Sperm-and Oocyte-Membranes.- 3 Mechanism of Oocyte Activation.- 3.1 [Ca2+]iIncrease.- 3.2 Fertilization Potentials.- 3.3 Cortical Reactions and Fertilization Envelope Formation.- 3.4 Resumption of Meiosis and Sperm Nuclear Decondensation.- 4 Mechanisms for Polyspermy Block.- 4.1 Role of Polyspermy Block.- 4.2 Reduction in Number of Sperm in Oocyte Investments.- 4.3 Fast, Electrical Block to Polyspermy.- 4.4 Slow Polyspermy Block by the Fertilization Envelope.- 4.5 Acquisition of Polyspermy Block During Oocyte Maturation in Anurans.- 4.6 Cytoplasmic Block to Polyspermy in Physiologically Polyspermic Oocytes.- 5 Variations in Amphibian Fertilization.- 5.1 Polyspermy in Anurans.- 5.2 Monospermy in Primitive Urodeles.- 5.3 Sperm Nuclear Behavior in Gynogenetic Urodele Oocytes.- References.- 5 Fertilization in Birds.- 1 Introduction to Avian Breeding Systems.- 2 Gametes, Gameteogenesis and Reproductive Systems.- 2.1 Primordial Germ Cells and Establishment of Gonads.- 2.2 Male Reproduction System and Sperm Production.- 2.2.1 Male Tract Anatomy.- 2.2.2 Maturation of Sperm Function.- 2.3 Female Reproductive System.- 2.3.1 The Ovary and Ovulation.- 2.3.2 The Oviduct and Egg Formation.- 2.4 Spermatozoa.- 2.4.1 Sperm Morphology.- 2.4.2 Sperm Motility.- 2.4.3 The Acrosome and Acrosomal Enzymes.- 2.5 The Ovum.- 2.5.1 Morphology of the Ovum at Ovulation.- 2.5.2 The Inner Perivitelline Layer.- 3 Oviducal Sperm Transport and Storage.- 4 Sperm:Egg Interaction.- 4.1 Fertilization in Vivo and in Vitro.- 4.1.1 Site of Fertilization in Vivo.- 4.1.2 Capacitation.- 4.2 Sperm: Perivitelline Layer Interaction.- 4.2.1 Sperm: Inner Perivitelline Layer Interaction.- 4.2.2 The Avian Acrosome Reaction.- 4.2.3 Inner Perivitelline Layer Molecules Mediating Interaction with Spermatozoa.- 4.2.4 Preferential Attraction of Spermatozoa to the Germinal Disc.- 4.2.5 The Outer Perivitelline Layer and Cessation of Sperm: Inner Perivitelline Layer Interaction.- 4.3 Sperm: Ovum Interaction and Syngamy.- 4.3.1 Sperm Engulfment by Oolemma.- 4.3.2 Pronuclear Formation and Syngamy.- 4.3.3 Supernumerary Spermatozoa and Embryonic Development.- 5 Quantitative Aspects of Sperm: Egg Interaction, Fertility and the Fertile Period.- References.- 6 Fertilization in Monotreme, Marsupial and Eutherian Mammals.- 1 Introduction.- 1.1 The Three Groups of Mammals.- 1.2 Monotremes.- 1.3 Marsupials.- 1.3.1 Marsupial Diversity.- 1.4 Eutherians.- 1.5 Mammalian Relationships and Evolution.- 1.6 Fertilization in Mammals.- 2 Sperm Production.- 2.1 Marsupials and Eutherians.- 2.2 Monotremes.- 3 Epididymal Maturation of Spermatozoa.- 3.1 Eutherians.- 3.1.1 Morphological Maturation.- 3.1.2 Development of Progressive Motility.- 3.1.3 Maturation of Sperm Surface.- 3.2 Marsupials.- 3.2.1 Morphological Changes.- 3.2.2 Molecular Changes.- 3.3 Monotremes.- 3.4 Common Themes and General Overview.- 4 Sperm Deposition, Storage and Transport in the Female Tract.- 4.1 Marsupials and Eutherians.- 4.2 Monotremes.- 5 Capacitation.- 5.1 Eutherians.- 5.1.1 Molecular Basis.- 5.2 Marsupials.- 5.2.1 Morphological Correlates.- 5.2.2 Differences Between Marsupials.- 5.3 Monotremes.- 5.4 Common Themes and General Overview.- 6 Hyperactivation of Spermatozoa.- 6.1 Eutherians.- 6.2 Marsupials and Monotremes.- 6.3 Common Themes and General Overview.- 7 The Acrosome.- 7.1 Mammalian Acrosome Morphology and Enzymes.- 7.2 Acrosome Reaction in Eutherians.- 7.2.1 Morphology and Functional Significance in Vivo.- 7.2.2 Mechanism of the Acrosome Reaction in Vivo.- 7.2.3 Mechanism of the Acrosome Reaction in Vitro.- 7.3 Acrosome Reaction in Marsupials and Monotremes.- 7.4 Common Themes and General Overview.- 8 Sperm Interaction with the Zona Pellucida.- 8.1 Eutherians.- 8.1.1 Structure and Function of the ZP.- 8.1.2 Primary Sperm-ZP Binding.- 8.1.3 Penetration of the ZP and Secondary Sperm-ZP Binding.- 8.2 Monotremes.- 8.3 Marsupials.- 8.3.1 Structure and Function of the ZP.- 8.3.2 Sperm Interaction with the ZP.- 8.4 Common Themes and General Overview.- 9 Sperm-Oocyte Fusion.- 9.1 Eutherians.- 9.2 Monotremes.- 9.3 Marsupials.- 9.4 Common Themes and General Overview.- 10 Oocyte Activation.- 10.1 Eutherians.- 10.2 Monotremes.- 10.3 Marsupials.- 10.4 Common Themes and General Overview.- 11 Cortical Reaction and Block to Polyspermy.- 11.1 Eutherians.- 11.1.1 Cortical Granules.- 11.1.2 Cortical Reaction.- 11.2 Monotremes.- 11.3 Marsupials.- 11.3.1 Cortical Granules.- 11.3.2 Cortical Reaction.- 11.4 Common Themes and General Overview.- 12 Decondensation of the Sperm Nucleus.- 12.1 Eutherians.- 12.2 Monotremes.- 12.3 Marsupials.- 12.4 Common Themes and Overview.- 13 Completion of Meiosis, Pronuclei Development and Syngamy.- 13.1 Eutherians.- 13.1.1 Completion of Oocyte Meiosis.- 13.1.2 Pronuclei Development and Syngamy.- 13.2 Completion of Fertilization in Monotremes.- 13.3 Completion of Fertilization in Marsupials.- 13.4 Common Themes and Overview.- 14 Concluding Remarks.- References.- 7 Fertilization in Protozoa and Metazoan Animals: A Comparative Overview.- 1 Introduction.- 2 Definition of Fertilization.- 3 Somatic and Germ Cell Lines in Protozoa and Metazoa.- 4 Comparative Analysis of Fertilization in Metazoa.- 4.1 Sperm Capacitation and the Environment of Fertilization.- 4.2 Composition of Oocyte Envelope(s).- 4.3 Sperm Binding to Oocyte Envelope(s).- 4.4 Acrosome Reaction.- 4.5 Binding and Fusion of Spermatozoon to Oocyte Plasma Membrane.- 4.6 Oocyte Activation.- 4.6.1 Changes in Plasma Membrane Potential.- 4.6.2 Increase in [Ca2+]i.- 4.6.3 Cortical Alveolus/Granule Exocytosis.- 4.6.4 Ooplasmic Segregation.- 4.6.5 Increase in pHi.- 4.6.6 Resumption of the Cell Cycle.- 4.6.7 Development of Male Pronucleus.- 4.6.8 Pronuclear Apposition and Karyogamy.- References.