Islam: Past, Present and Future

collecting and editing
Periods of revelation
The Qur'an as the Islamic constant
Is the Qur'an also the Word of God for Christians?

B II. The Central Message

1. There is no God but God
The practical theocentricity of Islam
Monotheism as a core concern and fighting programme
The creation of the world and human beings
God's supremacy - and human responsibility?
The last judgement and the final destiny of human beings
A concrete paradise and hell
The most beautiful names of God
The common belief in God in the three Abrahamic religions

2. Muhammad is his Prophet
The common basic ethic of the three prophetic religions
A prophetic religion par excellence
How the Prophet was called: the messenger of God
The battle for justice: the threat to the status quo
The battle for the oneness of God: 'Satanic verses'
Emigration: the turn of the ages

3. The Prophet as leading figure
How the Prophet became the statesman: the founding of a community
Break with the Jews
The Islamic theology of history
How the Prophet became the general: purges and wars
Muhammad's legacy
Achievements and virtues of the Prophet
Immoral? The traditional charges
Like the prophets of Israel
Is Muhammad also a prophet for Christians?

B III. The Central Structural Elements

1. Mandatory prayer
Daily ritual prayer - the essential symbol of Islam
Characteristics of Islamic prayer and worship: no priesthood
Effects: mosque - muezzin - minaret

2. Almsgiving, fasting, pilgrimage
Annual almsgiving for the poor
The annual period of fasting
The great pilgrimage to Mecca
A change in the substance of faith

C. History

C I. The Original Paradigm of the Islamic Community

1. Abiding substance of faith - changing paradigms
Is there also a paradigm change in Islam?
New epoch-making constellations

2. A religious vision realized
The new Islamic community
A religion of law?
Test cases: blood vengeance, the prohibition of usury, the ban on alcohol
The new responsibility of the individual
Arab and Muslim virtues

3. The religious and social transformation
The stabilization of marriage and family
The woman - highly valued or discriminated against?
The Islamic constitution - a divine state
What is Islamic and what is Arab-Bedouin?

4. From the Prophet to the Prophet's representative
Who is to lead?
The choice of a successor: Abu Bakr, the first caliph
From the desert to the confrontation with the high cultures

5. The original community expands
Islamic politics: 'Umar, the second caliph
How was Arab-Islamic expansion possible?
The first wave of conquest and the great confrontation with Christianity
Neither assimilation of the Muslims nor conversion of the Christians

6. The beginnings of Islamic theology and law
A Meccan policy instead of an Islamic one: 'Uthman, the third caliph
From word of mouth to writing: the Qur'an as a book
An Islamic theology?
The germs of local theologies
Still no specifically Islamic system of law

7. The great crisis in the original community: the split into parties
'Ali, the fourth caliph - disputed
The first civil war
The split between Sunnis, Kharijites and Shiites
Memory of the golden age

C II. The Paradigm of the Arab Empire

1. From Medina to Damascus: the new centre of power
The Umayyads come to power: Mu'awiyyah
A centralist monarchy develops
The establishment of the dynastic principle

2. The Shiite opposition
Husayn - the model for all martyrs
A separate 'confession': the Shiah
The new bearer of the hope of the opposition, the Mahdi; the second civil war

3. Imperial religious politics under the aegis of Islam
A pious autocrat: 'Abd al-Malik
Introduction of a Muslim currency
Arabic becomes the official language
Art is Islamized

4. The origin of Islamic law
State judges: the qadis
Islamization of the law: pious specialists
The theoretical foundation of the law

5. A new community made up of many peoples
From patriarchal regime to imperial government
The dividing walls collapse
Arabs and non-Arabs mix

6. A world empire comes into being
Paradigm change in foreign policy and military policy
The second wave of conquest: an empire from India to Spain
The second great confrontation with Christianity

7. A theological controversy with political consequences
Predestination by God - theologically disputed
Self-determination of human beings - politically dangerous: the Qadarites
Still no theological orthodoxy
Recourse to the Qur'an: the Kharijites
Postponement of judgement: the Murjites

8. The crisis of the empire
What is to be done with the new Muslims? The reform caliphate of 'Umar II
A coup and an inaugural sermon
Towards the third civil war
The end of the Arab empire
The paradigm of the Arab empire as a vision of hope: Pan-Arabism

C III. The Classical Paradigm of Islam as a World Religion

1. A new era begins
Baghdad, the new cultural metropolis of Islam
Islam as a world religion instead of the Arab nation
The cosmopolitan splendour of the caliphate
How the caliphs ruled
A tale from The 1001 Nights?

2. Classical Islam: a world culture
Arabic as a language of communication and a high language
Persian education and way of life
Hellenistic philosophy and science
The new role of the religious scholars
Classical Islamic law: the Shariah

3. The formation of the 'traditions of the Prophet', the Sunnah
What the Prophet said and did: the hadith
The science of the hadith
The victory of the preservers of the tradition
Are the hadith authentic?
A second source of revelation?

4. The four great law schools
The Malikite and Hanafite law schools
The classical juristic synthesis: ash-Shafi'i
The traditionalist principle becomes established
Is the door of 'legal findings' closed? Ibn Hanbal
Does innovation become fossilized tradition?

5. The second theological dispute: revelation and reason
The new importance of reason
Beginnings of rational theology: Wasil and 'Amr
Confrontation with the caliphate?
The paradigm of a rational theology
A God without properties? Jahm
God has properties: Abu l-Hudhayl's rational system
What are the consequences for the image of human beings?

6. The state and theology
The fourth civil war and its consequences for theology
An Islamic magisterium: al-Ma'mun and the Mu'tazilites
Is inquisition ('examination') in keeping with the mind of the
Prophet?
The Mut'azilites gain and lose power
Rational theology is subsumed into traditional theology: al-Ash'ari

7. The disintegration of the empire
The crisis of the institutions
The end of the world empire
The classical paradigm of a world religion as an image of hope: Pan-Islamism

C IV. The Paradigm of the Ulama and Sufis

1. After the one empire, the many states
Regionalization in east and west
The third confrontation between Islam and Christianity: the crusades
The post-imperial period: anti-caliphs
The Turks as heirs of the Islamic empire: sultans instead of caliphs
The Mongol invasion and its devastating consequences

2. The Ulama: legal schools become popular movements
Functions: training cadres, forming communities, networking
The new form of organization: the madrasa
Popular movements and party factions
Is there an alternative to an Islam of the law?

3. The Sufis: mystics form themselves into brotherhoods
Is mysticism an original element of Islam? Asceticism at the beginning
Is mysticism un-Islamic? Personal experience of God
The goal of mysticism - abiding life in God: Muhasibi and Junayd
Does mysticism have limits? The conflict over al-Hallaj

4. Sufism as a mass movement
The regulation of the Sufi communities
Parallels to Christian religious orders
Social work, mission, war
No progress for women
Shadow sides of Sufism
A religion of the heart instead of a religion of reason?

5. Normative theology
The long way of theology
A synthesis of Shariah Islam and Sufi Islam: al-Ghazali
Where does a fundamental certainty come from? A forerunner of Descartes?
Which way of life: theology, philosophy, esotericism?
The crisis and turn towards mysticism

6. Theological summas
Two masters of theology: al-Ghazali and Thomas Aquinas
Parallels in life
Parallels in work
Differences of style, method and interest
Different overall structures
The abiding fundamental difference
Fossilization or renewal of theology?

7. The rise and fall of Arabic philosophy
Can there be an independent Islamic philosophy?
Beginnings of Arabic philosophy: al-Kindi, al-Razi, al-Farabi
The highpoint of historic Arabic philosophy: Ibn-Sina
The end of Arabic Islamic philosophy: Ibn Rushd
Al-Andalus: an Arabized Christianity
Al-Andalus: a fertile symbiosis of Muslims and Jews
One dominant religion, two recognized minorities
History as a cycle of flourishing and decline: Ibn Khaldun

8. The crisis of medieval Islam
The beginning of Western Christian philosophy
A continuation of the Middle Ages instead of a renaissance
The victory of traditionalism: al-Mawardi, Ibn Taymiyyah
Freedom, reason, human dignity?

C V. The Paradigm of Islamic Modernization

1. Confrontation with European modernity
Is Islam to blame for the stagnation?
Islamic expansion in India, South Africa and South-East Asia
Different social structures
Why was there no Islamic reformation?

2. The great Islamic empires: Mughals, Safavids, Ottomans
The Indian Mughal empire: Akbar's unitary religion
'Re-islamization' and decline
The Persian Safavid empire: the first Shiite state
Shiite piety and politics
The Turkish Ottoman empire: the new Muslim world power
The difference in South-East Asian Islam

3. How Europe challenged the world of Islam
The thrust towards modernization I: the scientific and philosophical
revolution
A paradigm change in Islam?
The thrust towards modernization II: the cultural and theological revolution
Enlightenment in Islam?
The thrust towards modernization III: the political and democratic revolution
Islam and the French Revolution
The thrust towards modernization IV: the technological and industrial
revolution
Reforms in Islam?
Questions to European modernity

4. Between reform and reaction
Ulama for reforms: Islamic reformism
Opposition to the reforms: Islamic traditionalism
The new élites: Islamic modernism
European imperialism: a paradigm of confrontation and aggression
Secular nationalism: the downfall of the Ottoman empire
Arab renaissance?

D. Challenges of the Present

D I. The Competition between Different Paradigms

1. The secularist way
Turkish secularism: Mustafa Kemal Atatürk
Radical rejection of the Shariah

2. The Islamist way
Feudal Arabic Islamism: the Wahhabism of Saudi Arabia
Political-social radical Islamism: Khomeini's Islamic revolution

3. The socialist way
Arab socialism: Egypt
Pan-Arabism: Syria
Aggressive nationalism: Iraq

D II. What Kind of Islam do Muslims Want?

1. The contemporaneity of competing paradigms
Option I: Pan-Islamism?
Option II: Pan-Arabism?
Option III: Islamism?
Option IV: Socialism?
Option V: Secularism?

2. Islam in a constant state of change
Questions to traditionalists, secularists and reformers
A chasm in knowledge that is growing dramatically
How is the gap in education to be closed?

D III. The Middle East Conflict and a New Paradigm

1. Causes of conflict
The state of Israel on Palestinian land
The Arab dilemma: Israel either un-Jewish or undemocratic

2. No end to the tragedy?
Persisting in the old paradigm
What could be
Opportunities for the new paradigm

D IV. New Approaches to Theological Conversation

1. Methods of yesterday
The traditional controversy
The defensive strategies on both sides

2. Dialogue about Jesus
Jesus in the Qur'an: God's messenger, not son
What does it mean for Jesus to be God's son?
What could Muhammad have known?
An affinity between the Qur'anic and the Jewish-Christian understanding of
Christ
Reflecting on the cross
Jesus fully integrated into the Islamic tradition
What are the opportunities for a 'trialogue' on Jesus? Does it ask too much?

D V. Speculative Questions

1. Monotheism and Trinity
The Muslim belief in one God versus the Christian Trinity
Is criticism of the Qur'an legitimate?
Is there a distinction in God?

2. Reflection on the Bible
How does one speak of Father, Son and Spirit in biblical terms?
Christ and the Trinity: from the Bible to dogma
The situation of interreligious dialogue
Stages of time and systems of language

D VI. From Biblical Criticism to Qur'anic Criticism?

1. Literal revelation?
The Bible - is every word inspired?
The Qur'an - the question of historical contingency

2. Critical exegesis
The exegesis of the Qur'an - phases and problems
Beginnings of a modern exegesis of the Qur'an
Diversity of approaches and forms
Insights and hypotheses of Western exegesis of the Qur'an
New insights of Muslim exegesis of the Qur'an

3. A time-sensitive understanding of the Qur'an
Historical-critical hermeneutics of the Qur'an
Historical-anthropological hermeneutics of the Qur'an
Pluralistic-political hermeneutics of the Qur'an
What could a time-sensitive understanding of the Qur'an mean today?

E. Possibilities for the Future

E I. Islamic Renewal

1. The programme
Factors in the revival
Renewal as a return to the origins
Islam - the 'third force' for the future?

2. Approaches towards realization
Turkey - a laboratory for Islamic democracy?
Pioneer Islamic thinkers
Critical dialogue also with moderate Islamists

E II. The Future of the Islamic Legal Order

1. The challenge to traditional legal systems
The spread of legalism - in all three prophetic religions
Catching up with the Reformation
Reintroduction of the Shariah? The test case of Nigeria

2. Modern legal systems as a challenge
Human rights - a test case for Christianity and Judaism
Human rights - a test case for Islam
An Islamic basis for human rights?

3. Religions and women - a relationship of tension
Equal rights for women in Christianity and Judaism?
Equal rights for women in Islam?
Muslim women for women's rights

4. Reforms are indispensable
Protection of minorities?
Is the Shariah simply a code of life?
Towards a modern Shariah
General ethical framework: rights and responsibilities

E III. The future of Islamic State Order and Politics

1. State and religion - united or separated?
A trilateral comparison
Religion and state in Judaism
Separation of religion and state with Jesus of Nazareth?
The different context of the Prophet Muhammad
State and religion in Christianity and Islam

2. Secularity without secularism
Farewell to aggressive universalistic Christian and Muslim claims
Future perspectives for Islam and Christianity
Religious freedom - even to change religion?

3. Religion, violence and 'holy wars'
Does monotheism have a special propensity to violence?
Holy wars of Yahweh?
Violence in the sign of the cross
'Holy wars' of Muslims?

4. War or peace?
Realm of Islam - realm of war
Radicalization of the idea of jihad?
A hermeneutic of peacemaking
A pedagogy of peacemaking
A pragmatic of peacemaking

E IV. The Future of the Islamic Economic Order

1. Is Islam the solution?
The Mediterranean between piracy and good neighbourliness
Why the economic backwardness?
The prohibition of usury - required and evaded

2. Islamic traditions rediscovered
Islamic banking systems
Islamic foundations

3. Commerce and ethics
Ethical principles for commerce in keeping with Islam
The need for an ethical framework
Islamic commercial principles as a bridge

E V. The Future of the Islamic Way of Life

1. Do clothes make people?
Problems for Christian churches with the veil
The commandment for head coverings for Muslim women - not in the Qur'an
What is at issue in the dispute over the headscarf?

2. Treading the tightrope between Islamism and secularism
An Islamist fundamentalism
A secularist fundamentalism
Neither Islamism nor secularism as a model

3. Dialogue instead of a clash
Understanding instead of prohibitions
Not ideological but pragmatic solutions
A short excursus on the German legal situation

5. Controversies centred on the mosques
Mosques
Minarets
Call to prayer
Legal standpoint or dialogue?
Muslims, Christians and Jews - together in prayer?
An ecumenical prayer

Epilogue: Islam, an Image of Hope

1. From a hostile image to an image of hope
The fateful question for Islam
Contemporary Islam

2. An enlightened sense of religion
The modern differentiation of religion
Islam - only a part-system?
Ethics as the foundation of democracy - in Islam too
Islam as a help in life
Islam and world problems: the population explosion as a test case

3. The Muslim contribution to the dialogue between the civilizations
Bridges into the future
Shared ethical standards and universal human values
The Islamic foundation for a global ethic
The basis for an understanding between Islam and the West

Conclusion

Notes
Index
A word of thanks