Multilingual Natural Language Processing Applications

296 8.4 Summary 303 Chapter 9: Relations and Events 309 9.1 Introduction 309 9.2 Relations and Events 310 9.3 Types of Relations 311 9.4 Relation Extraction as Classification 312 9.5 Other Approaches to Relation Extraction 317 9.6 Events 320 9.7 Event Extraction Approaches 320 9.8 Moving Beyond the Sentence 323 9.9 Event Matching 323 9.10 Future Directions for Event Extraction 326 9.11 Summary 326 Chapter 10: Machine Translation 331 10.1 Machine Translation Today 331 10.2 Machine Translation Evaluation 332 10.3 Word Alignment 337 10.4 Phrase-Based Models 343 10.5 Tree-Based Models 350 10.6 Linguistic Challenges 354 10.7 Tools and Data Resources 356 10.8 Future Directions 358 10.9 Summary 359 Chapter 11: Multilingual Information Retrieval 365 11.1 Introduction 366 11.2 Document Preprocessing 366 11.3 Monolingual Information Retrieval 372 11.4 CLIR 378 11.5 MLIR 382 11.6 Evaluation in Information Retrieval 386 11.7 Tools, Software, and Resources 391 11.8 Summary 393 Chapter 12: Multilingual Automatic Summarization 397 12.1 Introduction 397 12.2 Approaches to Summarization 399 12.3 Evaluation 412 12.4 How to Build a Summarizer 420 12.5 Competitions and Datasets 424 12.6 Summary 426 Chapter 13: Question Answering 433 13.1 Introduction and History 433 13.2 Architectures 435 13.3 Source Acquisition and Preprocessing 437 13.4 Question Analysis 440 13.5 Search and Candidate Extraction 443 13.6 Answer Scoring 450 13.7 Crosslingual Question Answering 454 13.8 A Case Study 455 13.9 Evaluation 460 13.10 Current and Future Challenges 464 13.11 Summary and Further Reading 465 Chapter 14: Distillation 475 14.1 Introduction 475 14.2 An Example 476 14.3 Relevance and Redundancy 477 14.4 The Rosetta Consortium Distillation System 479 14.5 Other Distillation Approaches 488 14.6 Evaluation and Metrics 491 14.7 Summary 495 Chapter 15: Spoken Dialog Systems 499 15.1 Introduction 499 15.2 Spoken Dialog Systems 499 15.3 Forms of Dialog 509 15.4 Natural Language Call Routing 510 15.5 Three Generations of Dialog Applications 510 15.6 Continuous Improvement Cycle 512 15.7 Transcription and Annotation of Utterances 513 15.8 Localization of Spoken Dialog Systems 513 15.9 Summary 520 Chapter 16: Combining Natural Language Processing Engines 523 16.1 Introduction 523 16.2 Desired Attributes of Architectures for Aggregating Speech and NLP Engines 524 16.3 Architectures for Aggregation 527 16.4 Case Studies 531 16.5 Lessons Learned 540 16.6 Summary 542 16.7 Sample UIMA Code 542 Index 551