Perspectives on Personality

Point:The Interpersonal Circle 52 The Five-Factor Model:The Basic Dimensions of Personality? 52 What Are the Five Factors? 53 Reflections of the Five Factors in Behavior 55 The Five-Factor Model in Relation to Earlier Models 57 Some Additional Variations and Some Cautions 58 Are Superordinate Traits the Best Level to Use? 59 Traits, Situations, and Interactionism 59 Is Behavior Actually Traitlike? 59 Situationism 60 Interactionism 60 Individual Differences in Consistency 61 Other Aspects of Interactionism 62 Was the Problem Ever Really as Bad as It Seemed? 62 Interactionism Becomes A New View of Traits: Context-Dependent Expression of Personality 63 Fitting the Pieces Together:Views of Traits and Behavior 64 Assessment 65 Comparing Individuals: Personality Profiles 65 Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change 66 The Five-Factor Model and Personality Disorders 67 Interactionism in Behavior Problems 68 Behavior Change 68 Trait Psychology: Problems and Prospects 68 Summary 70 5 NEEDS AND MOTIVES 72 Basic Theoretical Elements 73 Needs 73 Motives 74 Press 74 Needs, Motives, and Personality 75 MotiveStatesand Motive Dispositions 75 Murray's System of Needs 76 Measuring Motives:The Thematic Apperception Test 76 Studies of Specific Dispositional Needs 78 Need for Achievement 78 Need for Power 80 Need for Affiliation 82 Need for Intimacy 83 Patterned Needs: inhibited Power Motive 84 Implicit and Self-Attributed Motives 85 Incentive Value 85 Implicit Motives Are Different From Self-Attributed Motives 86 Approach and Avoidance Motives 87 Approach and Avoidance in Other Motives 88 The Methods of Personology 89 Assessment 89 Motives and the Five-Factor Trait Model 91 Traits and Motives as Distinct and Complementary 91 Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change 92 Need for Power and Alcohol Abuse 92 Focusing On and Changing Motivation 93 Need and Motive Theories: Problems and Prospects 94 Summary 95 Part Three: The Biological Perspective: Major Themes and Underlying Assumptions 99 6 INHERITANCE, EVOLUTION, AND PERSONALITY 101 Determining The Role of Inheritance in Personality 102 Twin Study Method 103 Adoption Research 104 What Personality Qualities Are Inherited?105 Temperaments:Activity, Sociability, and Emotionality 105 Other Views of Temperaments 106 Inheritance of Traits 107 Temperaments and the Five-Factor Model 108 Genetics of Other Qualities: How Distinct Are They? 108 Inheritance and Sexual Orientation 109 Molecular Genetics and New Sources of Evidence 110 Environmental Effects 111 The Size of Environmental Influences 111 The Nature of Environmental Influences 112 Evolution and Human Behavior 112 Sociobiology and Evolutionary Psychology 113 Genetic Similarity and Attraction 115 Mate Selection and Competition for Mates 116 Mate Retention and Other Issues 118 Aggression and the Young Male Syndrome 119 Assessment 120 Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change 121 Schizophrenia and Bipolar Disorder 121 Substance Use and Antisocial Behavior 122 Evolution and Problems in Behavior 123 Behavior Change: How Much Is Possible? 123 Inheritance and Evolution: Problems and Prospects 124 Summary 126 7 BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND PERSONALITY 128 Eysenck: Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Brain Functions 129 Extraversion and Cortical Arousal 129 Neuroticism and Emotional Arousal 130 Incentive Approach System 130 Behavioral Approach,Activation, Engagement, or Facilitation 131 More Issues in Approach 132 Neurotransmitters and the Approach System 132 Behavioral Avoidance, or Withdrawal, System 134 A Revised View of BIS Function 135 Neurotransmitters and the Avoidance System 135 Relating Approach and Avoidance Systems to Traits or Temperaments 136 The Role of Sociability 136 The Role of Impulsivity 137 Impulse, Constraint, Sensation Seeking, and Effortful Control 138 Functions of the Sensation-SeekingDimension 138 Relating IUSS to Traits or Temperaments 139 Two Sources of Impulse and Restraint 139 Neurotransmitters and Impulse versus Constraint 140 Hormones and Personality 142 Hormones, the Body, and the Brain 142 Early Hormonal Exposure and Behavior 143 Testosterone and Adult Personality 144 Cycle of Testosterone and Action 146 Testosterone, Dominance, and Evolutionary Psychology 147 Responding to Stress: Men,Women, and Oxytocin 148 Assessment 149 Electroencephalograms 149 Neuroimaging 150 Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change 151 Biological Bases of Anxiety, Depression, and Antisocial Personality 151 Medication in Therapy 152 Biological Processes and Personality: Problems and Prospects 153 Summary 154 Part Four: The Psychoanalytic Perspective: Major Themes and Underlying Assumptions 157 8 PSYCHOANALYTIC STRUCTURE AND PROCESS 160 The Topographical Model of Mind 162 Aspects of Personality:The Structural Model 163 Id 163 Ego 164 Superego 166 Balancing the Forces 167 Motivation:The Drives of Personality 167 Cathexes and the Use of Energy 169 Two Classes of Drives: Life and Death Instincts 170 Coming together of Libidinal and Aggressive Energies 170 Catharsis 171 Displacement and Sublimation of Motive Forces 172 Psychosexual Development 173 The Oral Stage 174 The Anal Stage 175 The Phallic Stage 176 The Latency Period 179 The Genital Stage 179 Psychoanalytic Structure and Process: Problems and Prospects 180 Summary 182 9 ANXIETY, DEFENSE, AND SELF-PROTECTION 184 Anxiety 185 Mechanisms of Defense 185 Repression 186 Denial 187 Projection 188 Rationalization 189 Intellectualization 189 Reaction Formation 190 Regression 190 Identification 191 Displacement and Sublimation 191 Research on Defenses 191 Evidence of Unconscious Conflict 192 Exposing the Unconscious 193 The Psychopathology of Everyday Life 193 Dreams 195 Humor 197 Projective Techniques of Assessment 197 Rorschach Inkblot Test 198 Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change 200 Origins of Problems 200 Behavior Change 201 Does Psychoanalytic Therapy Work? 204 Psychoanalytic Defense: Problems and Prospects 205 Summary 206 Part Five: The Neoanalytic Perspective: Major Themes and Underlying Assumptions 209 10 EGO PSYCHOLOGY 211 Principles of Ego Psychology 213 Shifting the Emphasis from the Id to the Ego 213 Adaptation and Autonomy 214 The Ego,Adaptation, and Competence Motivation 215 Is Competence Striving Automatic, or Is It Done to Remedy inferiority? 216 Ego Control and Ego Resiliency 217 Ego Control, Ego Resiliency, and the Five-Factor Model 220 Ego Development 220 Early Ego Development 221 Middle Stages of Ego Development: Control of Impulses 222 Advanced Stages of Ego Development:Taking Even More into Account 223 Research on Ego Development 224 Ego Development and the Five-Factor Model 226 Assessment 226 Assessment of Lifestyles 227 Assessment of Level of Ego Development 227 Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change 228 Inferiority and Superiority Complexes 228 Overcontrol and Undercontrol 230 Behavior Change 230 Ego Psychology: Problems and Prospects 230 Summary 232 11 PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORIES 234 Object Relations Theories 234 Self Psychology 236 Attachment Theory and Personality 237 Attachment Patterns in Adults 239 How Many Patterns? 240 Stability and Specificity 240 Other Reflections of Adult Attachment 241 Attachment Patterns and the Five-Factor Model 243 Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development 243 Ego Identity, Competence, and the Experience of Crisis 244 Infancy 245 Early Childhood 245 Preschool 246 School Age 247 Adolescence 247 Young Adulthood 249 Adulthood 250 Old Age 251 The Epigenetic Principle 251 Identity as Life Story 252 Linking Erikson's Theory to Other Psychosocial Theories 253 Assessment 253 Object Relations,Attachment, and the Focus of Assessment 253 Play in Assessment 254 Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change 255 Narcissism as a Disorder of Personality 255 Basic Anxiety,Vicious Cycles, and Neurotic Needs 255 Attachment and Depression 257 Behavior Change 258 Psychosocial Theories: Problems and Prospects 259 Summary 259 Part Six: The Learning Perspective: Major Themes and Underlying Assumptions 263 12 CONDITIONING THEORIES 265 Classical Conditioning 266 Basic Elements 266 Classical Conditioning as Anticipatory Learning 267 Discrimination, Generalization, and Extinction in Classical Conditioning 268 Emotional Conditioning 270 Instrumental Conditioning 270 The Law of Effect 270 Reinforcement and Punishment 272 Discrimination, Generalization, and Extinction in Instrumental Conditioning 273 Altering the Shape of Behavior 275 Schedules of Reinforcement 275 The Partial Reinforcement Effect 277 Learning "Irrational" Behavior 278 Reinforcement of Qualities of Behavior 279 Assessment 279 Techniques 280 Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change 281 Classical Conditioning of Emotional Responses 281 Additional Benefits 283 Classical Conditioning of Aversion 284 Conditioning and Context 284 Instrumental Conditioning and Maladaptive Behaviors 285 Instrumental Conditioning of Conflict 286 Instrumental Conditioning and Biofeedback 286 Conditioning Theories: Problems and Prospects 287 Summary 288 13 SOCIAL--COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES 291 Elaborations On Conditioning Processes 292 Social Reinforcement 292 Vicarious Emotional Arousal 293 Vicarious Reinforcement 294 Semantic Generalization 295 Rule-Based Learning 295 Expectancies Concerning Outcomes 296 Locus-of-Control Expectancies 297 Efficacy Expectancies 299 Observational Learning 301 Acquisition versus Performance 303 Manifestations of Cognitive and Social Learning 304 Modeling and Sex-Role Acquisition 304 Modeling of Aggression and the Issue of Media Violence 306 Assessment 307 Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change 308 Conceptualizing Behavioral Problems 308 Modeling-Based Therapy for Skill Deficits 309 Modeling and Responses to Fear 311 Therapeutic Changes in Efficacy Expectancy 311 Self-instructions and Cognitive Behavioral Modification 313 Social--Cognitive Learning Theories: Problems and Prospects 314 Summary 315 Part Seven: The Phenomenological Perspective: Major Themes and Underlying Assumptions 319 14 HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY: SELF-ACTUALIZATION AND SELF-DETERMINATION 321 Self-Actualization 322 The Need for Positive Regard 322 Contingent Self-Worth 324 Self-Determination 325 Introjection and Identification 325 Need for Relatedness 326 Self-Concordance 327 Free Will 327 The Self and Processes of Defense 328 Incongruity, Disorganization, and Defense 328 Self-Esteem Maintenance and Enhancement 329 Self-Handicapping 331 Stereotype Threat 331 Self-Actualization and Maslow's Hierarchy of Motives 332 Characteristics of Frequent Self-Actualizers 334 Peak Experiences 336 Existential Psychology: Being and Death 337 The Existential Dilemma 337 Emptiness 338 Terror Management 338 Assessment 340 Interviews in Assessment 340 Measuring the Self-Concept by Q-Sort 341 Measuring Self-Actualization 342 Measuring Autonomy and Control 342 Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change 343 Client-Centered Therapy 344 Beyond Therapy to Personal Growth 345 Humanistic Theories: Problems and Prospects 345 Summary 347 15 PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS 350 Personal Constructs and Personality 351 Using Constructs 352 Constructs Are Bipolar 353 The Role of Recurrences 354 Range and Focus of Convenience 354 Elaboration and Change in Construct Systems 355 Organization among Constructs 356 Individuality of Constructs 357 Similarities and Differences between People 359 Role Taking 359 Personal Constructs and Behavioral Consistency 360 Assessment 361 Kelly's Role Construct Repertory Test 361 Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change 362 Personal Constructs and Psychological Distress 363 Dealing with Anxiety and Threat 364 Fixed-Role Therapy 365 Personal Construct Theory: Problems and Prospects 366 Summary 367 Part Eight: The Cognitive Self-Regulation Perspective: Major Themes and Underlying Assumptions 369 16 CONTEMPORARY COGNITIVE VIEWS 372 Representing Your Experience Of The World 373 Schemas and Their Development 373 Effects of Schemas 373 Semantic Memory, Episodic Memory, and Scripts 374 Socially Relevant Schemas 375 Self-Schemas 375 Entity versus incremental Schemas 376 Attribution 377 Activation of Memories 378 Priming and the Use of Information 379 Nonconscious Influences on Behavior 380 Connectionist Views of Mental Organization 381 Dual-Process Models 383 Explicit and Implicit Knowledge 385 Broader Views On Cognition and Personality 386 Cognitive Person Variables 386 Personality as a Cognitive--Affective Processing System 388 Assessment 389 Think-Aloud, Experience Sampling, and Self-Monitoring 390 Contextualized Assessment 391 Diagnostic Categories as Fuzzy Sets 391 Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change 392 Information-Processing Deficits 392 Depressive Self-Schemas 392 Cognitive Therapy 394 Contemporary Cognitive Theories: Problems and Prospects 395 Summary 396 17 SELF-REGULATION 398 From Cognition to Behavior 399 Schemas and Actions 379 Intentions 399 Goals 400 Goal Setting 400 Implementation intentions and the Importance of Strategies 401 Deliberative and Implemental Mindsets 402 Self-Regulation and Feedback Control 402 Feedback Control 402 Self-Directed Attention and the Action of the Comparator 404 Hierarchical Organization 405 Issues Concerning Hierarchical Organization 407 Evidence of Hierarchies 407 Emotions 408 Effects of Expectancies: Effort versus Disengagement 409 Partial Disengagement 410 Further Themes in Self-Regulation 411 Approach and Avoidance 411 Intention-Based and Stimulus-Based Action 411 Self-Regulation As Self-Control 413 Assessment 414 Assessment of Self-Regulatory Qualities 414 Assessment of Goals 415 Problems in Behavior, and Behavior Change 415 Problems as Conflicts among Goals and Lack of Strategy Specifications 415 Problems from an inability to Disengage 416 Self-Regulation and the Process of Therapy 417 Therapy is Training in Problem Solving 418 Self-Regulation Theories: Problems and Prospects 419 Summary 420 Part Nine: Personality in Perspective 423 18 OVERLAP AND INTEGRATION 425 Similarities Among Perspectives 426 Psychoanalysis and Biology: Evolutionary Psychology and the Structural Model 426 Psychoanalysis and Evolutionary Psychology:Fixations and Mating Patterns 427 Psychoanalysis and Conditioning 428 Psychoanalysis and Self-Regulation: Hierarchy and the Structural Model 429 Psychoanalysis and Cognitive Processes 429 Social Learning and Cognitive Self-Regulation Views 431 Neoanalytic and Cognitive Self-Regulation Perspectives 433 Maslow's Hierarchy and Hierarchies of Self-Regulation 434 Self-Actualization and Self-Regulation 435 Dispositions and Their Equivalents in Other Models 435 Recurrent Themes,Viewed From Different Angles 435 Impulse and Restraint 436 Individual versus Group Needs 437 Combining Perspectives 437 Eclecticism 438 An Example: Biology and Learning as Complementary Influences on Personality 438 Which Theory Is Best? 439 Summary 440