Bitcoin For Dummies

Modulators 231 8 FiberOptics239 8.1 Introduction 239 8.2 Fiber Characteristics 239 8.3 Fiber Theory 242 8.4 Fiber Types 247 8.5 Other Fiber Properties 251 8.6 Working with Fibers 255 8.7 Fiber Devices 260 8.8 Diode Lasers and Fiber Optics 264 8.9 Fiber Optic Sensors 264 8.10 Intensity Sensors 265 8.11 Spectrally Encoded Sensors 266 8.12 Polarimetric Sensors 269 8.13 Fiber Interferometers 270 8.14 Two-Beam Fiber Interferometers 270 8.15 Multiple Beam Fiber Interferometers 272 8.17 Multiplexing and Smart Structures 276 8.18 Fiber Sensor Hype 276 9 Optical Systems 279 9.1 Introduction 279 9.2 What, Exactly, Does a Lens Do? 279 9.3 Diffraction 288 9.4 Aberrations 300 9.5 Representing Aberrations 303 9.6 Optical Design Advice 306 9.7 Practical Applications 308 9.8 Illuminators 311 10 Optical Measurements 315 10.1 Introduction 315 10.2 Grass on the Empire State Building 315 10.3 Detection Issues: When Exactly Is Background Bad? 318 1 Measure the Right Thing 322 10.5 Getting More Signal Photons 324 10.6 Reducing the Background Fluctuations 326 10.7 Optically Zero-Background Measurements 328 10.8 Spectrally Resolved Measurements 329 10.9 Electronically Zero-Background Measurements 333 10.10 Labeling Signal Photons 336 10.11 Closure 341 11 Designing Electro-Optical Systems 343 11.1 Introduction 343 11.2 Do You ReallyWant To Do This? 343 11.3 Very Basic Marketing 350 11.4 Classes of Measurement 352 11.5 Technical Taste 354 11.6 Instrument Design 357 11.7 Guiding Principles 361 11.8 Design for Alignment 364 11.9 Turning a Prototype into a Product 367 12 Building Optical Systems 371 12.1 Introduction 371 12.2 Construction Style 371 12.3 Build What You Designed 372 12.4 Assembling Lab Systems 373 12.6 Collimating Beams 381 12.7 Focusing 383 12.8 Alignment and Testing 385 12.9 Prototypes 386 12.10 Aligning Beams with Other Beams 387 12.11 Advanced Tweaking 390 12.13 Adhesives 397 12.14 Cleaning 400 12.15 Environmental Considerations 402 13 Signal Processing 405 13.1 Introduction 405 13.2 Analog Signal Processing Theory 406 13.4 Amplifiers 416 13.5 Departures From Linearity 416 13.6 Noise and Interference 420 13.7 Frequency Conversion 435 13.8 Filtering 438 13.9 Signal Detection 447 13.10 Reducing Interference and Noise 450 13.11 Data Acquisition and Control 452 14 Electronic Building Blocks 457 14.1 Introduction 457 14.2 Resistors 457 14.3 Capacitors 460 14.4 Transmission Lines 470 14.5 Transmission Line Devices 476 14.6 Diodes 477 14.7 Bipolar Junction Transistors 479 14.8 Field-Effect Transistors (FETs) 486 14.9 Heterojunction FETs 487 14.10 Signal Processing Components 488 14.11 Digitizers 496 14.12 Analog Behavior of Digital Circuits 505 15 Electronic Subsystem Design 507 15.1 Introduction 507 15.2 Design Approaches 507 15.3 Perfection 514 15.4 Feedback Loops 516 15.5 Local Feedback 522 15.6 Signal Detectors 522 15.7 Phase-Locked Loops 530 15.8 Calibration 535 15.9 Filters 537 15.10 Other Stuff 540 15.11 More Advanced Feedback Techniques 542 15.12 Hints 544 15.13 Linearizing 545 15.17 Bulletproofing 553 15.18 Interference 557 15.19 Reliable Designs 558 16 Electronic Construction Techniques 559 16.1 Introduction 559 16.2 Circuit Strays 559 16.3 Circuit Boards 560 16.4 Stray Coupling 563 16.5 Ground Plane Construction 563 16.6 Technical Noise and Interference 566 16.7 Product Construction 572 16.8 Getting Ready 574 16.9 Prototyping 576 16.10 Surface Mount Prototypes 582 16.11 Prototyping Filters 585 16.12 Tuning, or, You Can't Hit What You Can't See 587 17 Digital Signal Processing 591 17.1 Introduction 591 17.2 Elementary Operations 592 17.3 Dead Time Correction 595 17.4 Fourier Domain Techniques 595 17.5 The Fast Fourier Transform 602 17.6 Power Spectrum Estimation 608 17.7 Digital Filtering 612 17.8 Deconvolution 615 17.9 Resampling 617 17.10 Fixing Space-Variant Instrument Functions 618 17.11 Finite Precision Effects 619 17.12 Pulling Data Out of Noise 620 18 Front Ends 627 18.1 Introduction 627 18.2 Photodiode Front Ends 628 18.3 Key Idea: Reduce the Swing Across Cd 630 18.4 Transimpedance Amplifiers 631 18.5 External Input Stages 635 18.6 How to Go Faster 648 18.7 Advanced Photodiode Front Ends 652 18.8 Other Types of Front End 658 18.9 Hints 660 19 Bringing Up the System 665 19.1 Introduction 665 19.2 Avoiding Catastrophe 667 19.3 Debugging and Troubleshooting 670 19.4 Getting Ready 671 19.5 Indispensable Equipment 673 19.6 Debugging Pickup and Interference Problems 676 19.6.1 Test Setups 676 19.7 Digital Troubleshooting 677 19.8 Analog Electronic Troubleshooting 678 19.9 Oscillations 681 19.10 Other Common Problems 683 19.11 Debugging and Troubleshooting Optical Subsystems 685 19.12 Localizing the Problem 688 20 Thermal Control 695 20.1 Introduction 695 20.2 Thermal Problems and Solutions 696 20.3 Heat Flow 699 20.4 Insulation 705 20.7 Heat Sinks 716 23 Local Feedback Loops 723 20.9 Temperature Controllers 725 Appendix A Good Books 735 A.1 Why Books? 735 A.2 Good Books for Instrument Builders 735 Notation 743 Physical Constants and Rules of Thumb 745 Index 747