Modern Methods of Plant Analysis / Moderne Methoden der Pflanzenanalyse

Gefriertrocknung flüssiger Präparate
II. Konservierung von Mikroorganismen
III. Fixation für cytochemische Untersuchungen
IV. Fixation für elektronenoptische Untersuchungen
D. Verwandte Methoden
I. Gefrierkonservierung
II. Gefriersubstitution
III. Gefrierschnitte
- Vapour Phase Chromatography
A. Theoretical Approach
I. Chromatography in General
1. Nature of Stationary Phase: Adsorption vs. Partition
2. Mobile Gas Phase : Elution, Displacement and Frontal Analyses
II. Types of Theories
1. Linear vs. Non-Linear Distribution Isotherms
2. Ideal vs. Non-Ideal Chromatography
III. Plate Theory
1. Calculation of the Number of Theoretical Plates
2. Calculation of the Distribution Coefficient
3. Evaluation of a Chromatographic Separation
IV. Rate Theory
1. Eddy Diffusion
2. Molecular Diffusion
3. Resistance to Mass Transfer
4. Temperature, Flow Rate and Pressure
V. Modifications and Additional Theories
B. Apparatus Requirements
I. Detection Systems
1. Integral Methods
a) Titration
b) Electrical Conductivity
c) Volume and Pressure Changes
d) Combustion to Carbon Dioxide
2. Differential Detectors - which Consume the Sample
a) Combustion to Carbon Dioxyde
b) Hydrogenation to Methane
c) Flame Emissivity
d) Hydrogen Flame and Thermocouple
e) Flame Ionization
3. Differential Detectors - which Preserve the Sample
a) Surface Potential
b) Dielectric Constant
c) Impedance of Gas Flow
d) Heat of Vaporization
e) Interferometer
f) Spectroscopy
g) Radioactivity
h) Thermal Conductivity - the Katharometer or Diapharometer
i) Gas Density Balance
j) High Voltage Ionization
k) Thermionic Emission
1) ? -Ray Ionization
m) Radio Frequency Detector
4. Summary of Detector Characteristics
II. Gas Phase
III. Sample Introduction
1. Gaseous Samples
2. Solid and Liquid Samples
IV. Stationary Phase
1. Column Construction
2. Column Dimensions
3. Capillary Columns
4. Solid Support
5. "Active" Solid Adsorbents
a) Charcoal, Alumina Silica Gel
b) Molecular Sieves
c) Tailing Reducers
d) Chromatothermography
e) Multiple Columns
6. Liquid Phase for GLC
a) Column Preparation
b) Selection of the Stationary Phase
c) Improvement of Peak Symmetry
V. Temperature Control
1. Types of Heating Units
2. Programmed Temperature Chromatography
C. Techniques
I. Sample Preparation
1. Removal of Water
2. Esterification
II. Fraction Collection
III. Sample Identification
1. Use of Standards
2. Homologous Series Plots
3. Detectors with Different Responses
4. Auxiliary Instruments
5. Electron Affinity Spetroscopy
6. Functional Group Classification
IV. Quantitative Analysis
1. Peak Heights
2. Peak Areas
3. Overlapping Peaks
4. Sloping Base Line and Secondary Peaks
5. Instrument Correction Factors
6. Internal Standard and Internal Normalization
D. Applications
I. Analytic Applications
1. Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen : Respiration and Photosynthesis
2. Hydrogen, Hydrogen Sulfide, Methane and other Fermentation Gases
3. Olefins and Saturated Hydrocarbons
4. Nitrogen, Nitrous Oxide, Nitrogen Dioxide and Nitric Oxide
5. Ammonia, Organic Amines and Amino Acids
6. Alkaloids, Indoles, Purines and Related Compounds
7. Carbohydrates
8. Lipids, Fatty Acids
9. Mono and Dicarboxylic Acids of Low Molecular Weight, and their Derivatives
10. Alcohols, Aldehydes, Ketones and Miscellaneous Esters
11. Phenyl Propanoid Compounds, Aromatic Acids, Phenols and Related Substances
12. Terpenes
13. Sulfur Compounds
14. Steroids
15. Miscellaneous Compounds
II. Preparative Gas Chromatography
E. Conclusion
- References
- Ion-Exchange Chromatography
A. Ion-Exchange Materials
I. Fundamental Properties of Ion-Exchange Resins
1. Chemical Structure
2. Physical Properties
a) Cross-Linking
b) Exchange Capacity
c) Particle Size
II. Ion-Exchange Celluloses
B. Theory of Chromatographic Procedures
I. Elution Analysis
1. Theory of Elution Analysis
2. Conditions for Successful Elution Analysis on Ion-Exchange Resins
II. Displacement Development
1. Completely Ionized Components
2. Incompletely Ionized Components
- Comparison of Elution and Displacement Methods
III. Frontal Analysis
C. Apparatus
D. Experimental Procedures
I. Purification of Ion-Exchange Resins
II. Preparation of the Column
III. Operation of the Column
1. Elution Analysis
a) Column Loading
b) Choice of Solvents
c) Selection of Temperature
d) Analysis of Effluent
e) Regeneration of Ion-Exchangers
2. Displacement Development
a) Selection of Column Size
b) Concentration of Developer
c) Size of Fraction
d) Regeneration of Resins
E. Some Applications of Ion-Exchange Chromatography
I. De-Ionization and Preliminary Group Separation of Extracts from Plant Tissues
- Separation into Four Groups
a) Aromatic Substances
b) Cationic or Basic Groups
c) Acidic Substances
d) Neutral Substances
II. Separation of a Group of Closely Related Solutes by the Elution Method
III. Separation of Compounds of High Molecular Weight
F. Ion-Exclusion
G. Mechanism of Adsorption of Solutes on Ion-Exchange Resins
H. Applicability of Ion-Exchange Chromatography
I. Choice of Ion-Exchanger
II. Conditions for Chromatography
III. Rechromatography
- References
- Table 1. Chromatographie grade resins and celluloses
- Molecular Sieving other than Dialysis
A. Ion-Exchange Materials as Ionic Sieves
- Separations by Ionic Sieving
B. Molecular Sieving on Starch
C. Dextran Gels as Molecular Sieves
1. Theory of gel Filtration
2. Preparation and Operating of Columns
3. Some Applications of Dextran Gels as Molecular Sieves
- References
- Dünnschicht-Chromatographie
A. Methode und Geräte
I. Die Herstellung dünner Sorptionsschichten
II. Sorptionsmittel und Bereitung der Streichmasse
1. Kieselgel G für Dünnschicht-Chromatographie "Merck"
2. Aluminiumoxid G für Dünnschicht-Chromatographie "Merck"
3. Kieselgur G für Dünnschicht-Chromatographie "Merck"
III. Auftragen der Substanzen und Auswahl des Elutionsmittels
IV. Trennkammer und deren Sättigungszustand
V. Sichtbarmachung der getrennten Substanzen
1. Chemische Verfahren
2. Physikalische Verfahren
a) Aktivitätsmessung
b) Fluorescenzverfahren
3. Biologische Verfahren
VI. Untere Erfassungsgrenze im Vergleich zur Papierchromatographie
VII. Dokumentation und allgemeine Auswertung
VIII. Quantitative Auswertung
1. Direkte Verfahren
2. Indirekte Verfahren
B. Spezielle Arbeitstechniken
I. Zirkular- und Formgebungstechnik
II. Stufentechnik
III. Zweidimensionale Arbeitsweise ohne und mit Zwischenreaktion
C. Anwendungsbereich und Einsatzmöglichkeiten
D. Anwendungsbeispiele
1. Alkaloide
2. Aminosäuren
3. Indol-Auxine
4. Steroide und Steroidglykoside
5. Lipide
- Literatur
- Paper Chromatography on a Preparative Scale
A. General
I. Impurities
II. Choice of Solvent System
III. Quantities
IV. Application of the Sample
V. Localisation of Bands
VI. Elution of the Resolved Spots
B. Multisheet- and Cardboard-Chromatography
C. Separation on Paper-Packs
I. Circular Chromatopack Procedure
II. One Dimensional Chromatopack Procedure
III. Chromatopile Procedure
D. Column Chromatography
I. Columns of Cellulose Powder
1. Filling of the Column
2. Elution
3. Fraction CoUector
II. Paper Roll Column Chromatography
E. Continous Paper Chromatography
F. Accelerated Chromatography
I. High Temperature Paper Chromatography
II. Centrifugal Chromatography
- References
- Determination of Size, Shape and Homogeneity of Macromolecules in Solution
A. Average Molecular Weights
B. Osmotic Pressure
I. General Theoretical Considerations
1. Definition of Osmotic Pressure
2. van';t Hoff';s Law and Derivation of Osmotic Pressure Equation
a) Ideal Charged Macromolecule-Donnan Equilibrium
b) Non-Ideal Charged or Uncharged Macromolecule, i.e. the General Case
3. Extrapolation to Zero Concentration
II. Experimental Method
1. Types of Osmometers
a) Dynamic and Static Methods
b) Membranes
2. Difficulties and Precautions
C. Light Scattering
I. Fundamental Concepts of the Theory of Light Scattering
II. Scattering by Dilute Solutions
III. Fluctuation Theory of Scattering
IV. Systems of Isotropic Particles Comparable in Size to the Wave Length: Internal Interference
1. Dissymmetry Method
2. Zimm Method
V. Polydispersity
VI. Anisotropy and Depolarisation
VII. Equations for Polarised Incident Light
VIII. Scattering from Large Spherical Particles - Validity of Approximate Solution for Internal Interference
IX. Multicomponent Systems
X. Charged Macromolecules : Non-Random Systems
XI. Interacting Systems
XII. Experimental Methods
1. Measurement of Reduced Intensity of Scattering
2. Cells
3. Volume and Refraction Effects
4. Back Reflection Correction
5. Calibration of Light Scattering Photometers
6. Measurements on Coloured Solutions
7. Fluorescent Solutions
8. Measurement of Refractive Index Increment
9. Clarification of Solutions
10. Concentration of Solute
11. Measurement of 90° Scattering
12. Dissymmetry Method
13. Angular Intensity Measurements
D. Diffusion
I. Information Available from Diffusion
II. Diffusion and the Laws of Diffusion
1. Types of Diffusion Measurements Carried out in Practice
a) Steady-State Diffusion
b) Free Diffusion
c) Restricted Diffusion
d) Diffusion during a Sedimentation Velocity Experiment
2. Feck';s first Law and Definition of Diffusion Coefficient
3. Thermodynamic Interpretation of Diffusion Coefficient
4. Fick';s second Law
5. Equations for Evaluating Diffusion Coefficients Using Measurements of Free Diffusion Experiments
6. Correction of Diffusion Coefficients to Standard Conditions
a) Correction of D for Viscosity
b) Correction of D for Temperature
c) Extrapolation of D to Zero Solute Concentration
7. Detection of Heterogeneity by Free-Diffusion Experiments
III. Experimental Method for Steady-State and Free-Diffusion Experiments
1. Steady-State Diffusion - the Diaphragm Cell
2. Free Diffusion
3. Optical Methods for Free Diffusion
a) Schlieren Method
b) Gouy Interference Fringe Method
c) Rayleigh Interference Fringe Method
d) Polarized-Light Method
4. Zero Time Correction
5. Method of Expressing Results
6. Example of Calculation of Reduced Height-Area Ratio
- From Schlieren Photographs of an Artificial Boundary in the Ultracentrifuge
IV. The Use of the Diffusion Coefficient in Determining Molecular Weight
1. Combination of Sedimentation and Diffusion Coefficients to give Molecular Weight
2. Approximate Method Using Stokes'; Law
3. Combination of Diffusion Coefficient and Intrinsic Viscosity
4. Diffusion Coefficient Relationship to Molecular Shape
V. Factors Contributing to Uncertainty in the Experimental Determination of the Diffusion Coefficients of Macro-Molecules
1. Interaction of Solute Flows
2. Charge Effects with Macromolecules
3. Initial Conditions - Dialysis
4. Purity of Solute
E. Ultracentrifugation
I. Information Available from Sedimentation, and General Aspects of Sedimentation Analysis
II. The Two Facets of Sedimentation Analysis
III. Non-Ideal Behaviour and Charge Effects
IV. Sedimentation Velocity
1. The Boundary and Optical Means of Observation
2. The Sedimentation Coefficient and its Experimental Evaluation
3. Minimum Requirements from Sedimentation Analysis which must be Fulfilled if a Substance is to be Claimed as Homogeneous with Respect to Sedimentation Coefficient
4. More Stringent Tests which must be Satisfied by a Homogeneous Material
5. Expressions of the Degree of Heterogeneity of a Material
a) Actual Distribution of Sedimentation Coefficients
b) Method of Indicating Departure of Sedimentation Curve from that Representative of Homogeneity
6. Density Differences as a Test of Heterogeneity. Equilibrium Sedimentation in a Density Gradient
V. Equation for Determining Molecular Weight from Sedimentation Velocity
1. The Svedberg Equation
2. Approximate Methods
3. Partial Specific Volume
VI. Sedimentation Equilibrium and Approach-to-Equilibrium
1. Klainer-Kegeles Calculation of the Archibald Method when a Plateau Region is Still Present
2. A General Method of Calculation which can be Applied throughout the Cell whether or not a Plateau Region Exists
3. Method of Calculation of Molecular Weight which Gives the Weight-Average Molecular Weight of the Whole Solute once Equilibrium has been Attained
4. Method of Calculation which Gives the z-Average Molecular Weight of the Whole Solute once Equilibrium has been Attained
VII. The Proportions of Components in a Sedimenting Mixture
1. The Johnston-Ogston Effect
2. Velocity Sedimentation in Systems of Reversibly-Interacting Components
F. Viscosity
I. Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Viscosity
II. Functions of Viscosity
III. Viscosity Relations for Particles of Different Shapes
IV. Experimental Methods
G. Particle Shape from Hydrodynamic Measurements
I. Spheroidal Molecules
1. Frictional Coefficient
2. Intrinsic Viscosity
3. Combination of Hydrodynamic Methods to Give Particle Shape
II. Randomly-Coiled Molecules
- Sectional References
- Optical Rotatory Dispersion. Its Application to Protein Conformation
A. Mean Residue Rotation of Polypeptides and Proteins
B. Optical Rotatory Dispersion - Drude Equation
C. Rotatory Properties of Synthetic Polypeptides
D. Optical Rotatory Properties of Proteins
- Existence of Structures in Proteins other than the Right-Handed ?-Helix and Random Coil
E. Temperature Dependence of Optical Rotation
F. Measurement of Optical Rotation
G. Treatment of Data
- References
- Diffuse Röntgenkleinwinkelstreuung
A. Theorie
I. Die reine Partikelstreuung
II. Dichtgepackte isotrope Systeme
III. Orientierte Objekte
B. Experimentelle Methodik
I. Die wichtigsten Kameratypen
1. Kameras vom Lochblendentyp
2. Kameras vom Spaltblendentyp
II. Die Monochromatisierung der Strahlung
1. Monochromatisierung durch Kristallreflexion
2. Verwendung des Rossschen Filterdifferenzverfahrens
3. Aussonderung der gewünschten Strahlung durch einen Impulshöhendiskriminator in Verbindung mit einem Proportionalzählrohr
III. Die Registrierung
1. Photographische Messung
2. Impulszählung
C. Anwendungsbeispiele
I. Homodisperse Proteinlösungen
II. Homodisperse Pflanzenviren
III. Dicke der Proteidlamellen von isolierten Chloroplasten
IV. Bestimmung der Micelldicke in "luftgequollener" Cellulose
V. Bestimmung der Micelldicke in "wassergequollener" Cellulose
VI. Bestimmung der Micelldicke nativer Cellulose aus dem Rånbyschen Micellpulver und aus gequollenen Ramiefasern
VII. Gehaltsbestimmung der Micellen aus der Anisotropie der Kleinwinkelstreuung bei Cellulosefasern
VIII. Orientierungsbestimmung aus der Anisotropie der Kleinwinkelstreuung
- Literatur
- Méthodes Calorimétriques pour l';Analyse des Végétaux
I. Appareillage
II. Thermogenèse de Germinations
III. Gradients de Thermogénèse dans les Organes en Croissance
IV. Thermogénèse des Cultures Bactériennes et Mycéliennes; Fermentations
V. Chaleurs de Combustion d';Organes et de Produits Végétaux
VI. Conclusion
- Références Bibliographiques
- Surface Factors Affecting the Penetration of Compounds into Plants
A. Effect of Molecular Structure on Permeation
B. Effect of Surface and Interfacial Factors on Potency of Treatments
I. Factors Affecting Deposition of Materials on Foliage
II. Factors Affecting the Absorption of Materials by Foliage
1. Nature of the Formulation Applied
2. Nature of the Plant Surface
C. Surface and Interfacial Tension
I. Measurement of Surface Tension
1. Capillary Methods
2. Falling Drop Method
3. The Ring Method
II. Measurement of Interfacial Tension
1. Capillary Method
2. Falling Drop Method
3. Ring Method
D. Wetting and Spreading
I. Wetting and the Contact Angle
II. Water Repellency
III. Spreading and the Spreading Coefficient
IV. Penetration of Porous Surfaces
- References
- Tissue and Single Cell Cultures of Higher Plants as a Basic Experimental Method
A. History of the Method
B. Types of Cultures
C. Tissue Culture Media
I. Concentrated Stock Solution
II. Preparation of Basic Media
III. Supplements to the Basic Media
IV. Purity of the Water
V. Types of Culture Vessels
VI. Cleaning of Glassware
VII. Aeration of the Cultures
VIII. Sterilization of Media
D. Isolations of Organs, Tissues and Cells
I. Isolation and Transfer Tools
II. Organ and Tissue Culture
III. Embryo Cultures
IV. Root Tip Cultures
V. Stem Tip Cultures
VI. Other Miscellaneous Cultures
VII. Callus Cultures
VIII. Some General Precautions
E. Transfer and Maintenance of Cultures
I. Callus Formation
II. Testing for Sterility of Cultures
F. Single CeU Cultures
G. Growth Measurements
H. Requirements for Growth of Callus Cultures
I. The Acidity of the Medium
II. Temperature
III. Light
IV. Inorganic Nutrition
V. Carbohydrate Nutrition
VI. Nitrogen Nutrition
VII. Vitamins and Growth Substances
VIII. Nucleic Acids, Purines and Pyrimidines
IX. Complex Extracts
J. Some Applications of Tissue and Cell Cultures
I. Respiration and Metabolism
II. Polarity and Organ function
III. Studies of Plant Diseases
IV. Single Cell Cultures of Higher Plant Cells
K. Resume
- References
- Immunological Methods
A. The General Principles of Immunological Methods
B. Purification of Antigens, Immunization of Animals and Treatment of Antisera
I. Purification of Antigens
II. Production of Antibodies
1. Choice of Animals
2. Immunization of Animals
- Adjuvant Method
III. The Preparation of Antisera
1. Bleeding
2. Separation of Serum
3. Storage of Serum
IV. Pretreatment of the Antisera
1. Isolation and Concentration of Antibodies
2. Absorption of Antisera
3. Labelled Antisera
a) Production of Fluorescein Labelled Antiserum
b) Production of Ferritin Labelled Antibodies
C. Serological Methods
I. Precipitin and Agglutinin Reactions
1. Considerations of the Mechanism of the Precipitin Reaction
2. Reactions in Free Liquids
a) In Tubes
b) In Droplets
c) The Agglutinin Technique
3. Reactions in Gels
a) Simple Diffusion in One Dimension
b) Double Diffusion in One Dimension
c) Double Diffusion in Two Dimensions
d) Interpretation of Precipitation Patterns in Double Diffusion
e) Immunoelectrophoresis in Gels
4. Localization of Antigens in Tissues
II. The Complement Fixation Test
III. Serological Methods Based on Electron Microscopy
IV. Serological Methods Based on Specific Activities of Antigens
D. Antigen-Antibody Reactions in Sensitized Animals or Their Organs
E. Quantitative Determinations of Antigens
I. Dilution-End-Point Test
II. ?-Optimum Test
III. The Determination of the Amounts of Specific Precipitate
F. Measurements of the Amounts of Antibodies in Sera
I. The Titre of the Serum
II. From the Determination of the ? Optimum
G. Methods for the Determination of Relationships between Antigens
H. Immuno-Chemical Criteria of Purity of Antigens
J. Applications
I. Serology in Relation to Taxonomy of Higher Plants, Fungi and Bacteria
II. Identification of Antigenics Substances from Plants
1. Proteins in General
2. Toxins and Allergens
3. Substances with Enzymatic Properties
4. Plant Viruses
III. Serological Studies of Cell Products
IV. Serological Applications in the Analysis of Biosynthetic Processes
1. Biosynthesis during Multiplication of Plant Viruses
2. Localization of Virus Synthesis within Intact Plant Cells
3. Antigens Associated with Fungus Infection
4. Biosynthesis of Enzymes
5. The Study of the Process of Vernalisation
- Concluding Remarks
- References
- Polarography and Tensammetry
A. Principles of Polarography
I. (A) D.C. Polarography
1. General
2. Types of Polarographic Processes
3. Applicability of D.C. Polarography
4. Specialized Techniques
II. A.C. Polarography
III. Tensammetry
- Combined A.C. Polarographic-Tensammetric Processes
B. The Practice of Polarography
I. Measuring Outfit
1. D.C. Polarography
a) A Simple, Cheap Polarograph
b) Useful Additions to the Simple Polarograph
2. A.C. Polarography
II. The Polarographic Cell
III. Testing of the Outfit
IV. The Taking of Polarograms
V. Evaluation of Polarograms
VI. Polarographic Titrations
VII. Chromato-Polarography
VIII. Common Faults and their Remedies
1. Total Interruption in the Circuit
2. Irreproducibility of Results
- References
- Fallout Contamination in Plants
A. Factors which Influence the Fallout Contamination of Plants
I. Properties and Characteristics of Fallout
II. Plant Factors which Affect Contamination
B. Methods of Estimating Gross Fallout Contamination in Plant Material
I. Counting
II. Autoradiography of Contaminated Specimens
C. Methods of Estimating the Individual Radionuclides in Contaminated Plant Materials
I. Radioactive Strontium
1. Sample Preparation
2. General Method of Bryant, Morgan and Spicer (1959)
a) Preparative Procedure
b) Counting Procedure
c) Addenda
II. Iodine-131
1. ?-Spectrometry
2. Radiochemical Method
III. Caesium-137
- References
- Sachverzeichnis (Deutsch-Englisch)
- Subject Index (English-German)
- Table des Matières pour la Contribution: H. Prat, Méthodes Calorimétriques pour l';Analyse des Végétaux