SPI Plastics Engineering Handbook of the Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc.

Monitoring.- Temperature Control of Barrel and Melt.- PID Injection Pressure Control.- Relating Process Control to Product Performance.- Molding Parameters.- Display of Monitored Molding Parameters.- Machine Control.- Adaptive Ram Programmer.- Microprocessor Advantages.- Glossary of Injection Molding Terms.- 6 Design Considerations for Injection Molds.- Mold Design Features.- Two-Plate Mold.- Three-Plate Mold.- Hot Runner Molds.- Insulated Runner Molds.- Runners.- Gates.- Moldmaking.- Venting.- Parting Line.- Ejection.- Ejector Mechanisms.- Ejector Sleeve.- Stripper Ring.- Stripper Plates.- Vent Pins.- Cam Actions.- Early Ejector Return Unit.- Mold Cooling.- Standard Equipment.- Standard Mold Bases.- Standard Cavity Inserts.- 7 Injection Mold Manufacturing.- The Moldmaker.- Design and Consideration.- Number of Cavities.- Machine Size.- Plasticizing Capacity.- Economics.- Specifications.- Features.- Mold Quotations.- Delivery Time.- Placement.- Responsibilities.- Standard Mold Bases.- Mold Plates.- Mold Base Nomenclature.- "A" Series Mold Bases.- Mold Base Stainless Steel.- Window Pockets.- Blind Pockets.- Cavity Pockets.- Wear Plates.- Mold Base Machining.- Special Mold Bases.- Quality of Mold Bases.- Mold Base Numbers.- Specific-Purpose Mold Bases.- "AX" Mold Bases.- "T" Series Mold Bases.- Mold Base Features.- Mold Base Plates.- Types of Molds.- Conventional Molds.- Three-Plate Molds.- Insulated Runner Molds.- Internally Heated Runnerless Molding Systems.- Externally Heated Runnerless Molding Systems.- Runnerless Molding Nozzles.- Valve-Gate Runnerless Molding Systems.- Fabrication of Components.- Cavity Machining.- Core and Cavity.- Electric-Discharge Machining.- Slide and Unscrewing Devices.- Collapsible Cores.- Collapsible Core Sequence.- Mold Components.- Interlocks.- Return Pins and Springs.- Early Ejector Return.- External Positive Return System.- Hobbing.- Cast Cavities.- Electroforming.- Cavity Finishing.- SPI Finish Number.- Hand Benching.- Tool-Assisted Benching.- Direction of Benching.- Mold Polishing.- Ultrasonic Tools.- Textured Cavities.- Texture Patterns.- Mold Steels.- Compression Molds.- Transfer Molds.- Reaction Injection Molds.- Expandable Polystyrene Molds.- Structural Foam Molds.- Chrome Plating.- Electroless Nickel Plating.- Nitriding and Carburizing.- Proprietary Wear Processes.- Mold Steel.- 8 Injection Molding of Thermosets.- Overview.- How the Process Operates.- Process and Design Considerations.- Materials.- Process Effects on Design.- Injection-Compression Molding.- Part-Design Considerations.- Cold Runner Molding.- Injection Molding Reinforced Polyesters.- Injection Molding Presses.- Temperature Control.- 9 Compression and Transfer Molding.- Compression Molding.- Techniques and Materials.- Molding of Phenol-formaldehyde Components.- Molding of Urea-formaldehyde and Melamine-formaldehyde Components.- Molding of General Purpose Polyester Molding Compounds.- Molding of Alkyd Materials.- Molding of Thermoplastic Materials.- Molding of Fluorocarbons.- Cold Molding.- Advantages of Compression Molding.- Limitations of Compression Molding.- Procedure for Compression Molding.- Types of Compression Molds.- Machinery and Equipment.- Automatic Compression Molding.- Basic Requirements for Automatic Compression Molding.- Types of Machines.- Preheating in Automatic Compression Molding.- Transfer Molding.- History.- Utility of Process.- Description of Process.- Transfer Molds.- Advantages of Transfer Molding.- Limitations of the Process.- Comparison between Compression and Transfer Molding.- Theoretical and Design Considerations.- Liquid Resin Molding.- 10 Designing Molds for Thermoset Processing.- Method of Molding.- Compression Molds.- Transfer Molds.- Injection Molding of Thermosets.- Injection-Compression Molding of Thermosets.- Runner and Gate Design.- Vents.- General Mold Design Considerations.- 11 Molded Part Design.- Structural Design Characteristics of Plastics.- Mechanical Properties-The Stress-Strain Curve.- Effect of Temperature, Loading Time, and Environment.- Creep and Relaxation.- Design Methods.- Designing Within the Modulus Accuracy Limit.- Yield Design.- Designing the Part.- Basic Design Theory.- Wall Thickness.- Fillets and Radii.- Ribs.- Undercuts.- Taper or Draft.- Bosses/.- Holes.- External and Internal Threads.- Inserts.- Parting Lines.- Surface Treatment.- Molded Lettering.- Avoiding Warpage Problems.- Design.- Mold Design.- Molding Conditions.- Troubleshooting Guide.- 12 Blow Molding of Thermoplastics.- Extrusion Blow Molding.- Process Variables.- Die Dimension Calculations.- Air Entrance.- Parison Variations.- Types of Extrusion Blow Molding.- Continuous Extrusion.- Intermittent Extrusion.- Forced Extrusion.- Dip Blow Molding.- Form/Fill Seal.- Coextrusion Blow Molding.- Trimming and Handling.- Neck Calibration.- In-Mold Labeling.- Materials.- Injection Blow Molding.- Design Considerations.- Coinjection Blow Molding.- Stretch Blow Molding.- Injection Orientation Blow Molding.- Coinjection Stretch Blow Molding.- Auxiliary Equipment.- Molds for Extrusion Blow Molding.- Injection Blow Molding Cooling.- Design and Construction.- Principle of Operations.- Mold Design.- Alignment of Components.- Core Rod Design and Construction.- Parison Molds.- Blow Molds.- 13 Thermoforming of Plastic Film and Sheet.- Overview.- Methods of Thermoforming.- Methods of Thermoforming.- Vacuum Forming into a Female Mold.- Pressure Forming into Female Cavity.- Free Forming.- Plug-Assist Forming.- Drape Forming.- Matched Mold Forming.- Trapped Sheet.- Plug-and-Ring Forming.- Ridge Forming.- Slip Forming.- Snap-Back Forming.- Billow-Up Prestretch Techniques.- Billow-Up Plug Assist (or Reverse Draw with Plug Assist).- Billow-Up Vacuum Snap-Back.- Dual Sheet Forming.- Thermoforming Machines.- Single-Stage, Sheet-Fed Machines.- Multiple-Stage, Sheet-Fed Machines.- In-Line Sheet-Fed Machines.- Continuous Roll-Fed Machines.- Packaging Machines.- Materials.- Plastic Memory.- Hot Elongation or Hot Strength.- Temperature Range for Forming.- Thermoforming Processing Temperatures.- Heating.- Temperature Control.- Vacuum/Air Pressure.- Tooling.- Trimming.- Problems of Shrinkage.- Trimming in the Mold.- Control.- Manual-Control Equipment.- Automation.- Control Systems.- Thermoforming of Coextruded Structures and Other Special Materials.- Cooling Requirements of the Thermoforming Process.- Substrate Thermoforming.- Troubleshooting.- Checklist for Troubleshooting.- Thermoforming Troubleshooting Guide.- 14 Rotational Molding.- Overview.- How It Works.- Machinery.- Batch-Type Machines.- Carousel-Type Machines.- Independent-Arm-Type Machines.- Straight-Line Machines.- Jacketed-Mold Machines.- Molds.- Materials.- Design.- 15 Calendering.- Blending.- Scrap and Cold Trim.- Mills and Strainers.- Calender.- Take-Off Stripper Section.- Embosser.- Winder.- Trends.- 16 Vinyl Dispersions.- Overview.- Historical.- Resins.- Rheology.- Fusion.- Formulating Vinyl Plastisols.- Dispersion and Blending Resins.- Plasticizers.- Stabilization.- Thinners.- Fillers.- Pigment.- Specialty Ingredients.- Plastisol Preparation.- Property Determination.- Spread Coating Processes and Applications.- Spread Coating.- Knife Coating.- Roll Coating.- Fusion.- Web Handling and Finishing.- Fabric Coating.- Coating Paper and Nonwoven Materials.- Film Casting.- Spread Coating Metal Substrates.- Miscellaneous Coating Applications.- Molding.- Dip Coating and Dip Molding.- Hot Dipping Process.- Cold Dripping Process.- Rotational Molding.- Slush Molding.- Cavity, In-Place, and Low-Pressure Molding.- Specialized Processes.- Strand Coating.- Spray Coating.- Extrusion.- References.- 17 Powder Coatings.- Manufacturing Methods.- Dry Blend.- Melt Mix.- Solution.- Application Methods.- Fluidized Bed.- Electrostatic Spraying.- Friction Static Spraying.- Electrostatic Fluidized Bed.- Powder Coating Types.- Thermoplastic Types.- Thermosetting Types.- The Application Line.- Economics.- 18 Reinforced Plastics and Composites.- Overview.- A Brief History.- Terminology.- Thermosetting Plastics.- Thermoplastics.- Fillers and Additives.- Reinforcements.- Preforms, Compounds, and Prepregs.- Processes.- Open (or contact) Molding.- Compression Molding.- Injection Molding.- Reactive and Resin Transfer Molding.- Continuous Processes.- Other Molding Processes.- Features and Benefits.- Markets and Applications.- Design Review.- Designing for Closed Mold Processes.- Fastening, Welding, Bonding.- Designing for Hand Lay-Up.- Designing for Spray-Up.- Conclusion.- 19 Cellular Plastics.- Overview.- History.- Chemical Blowing Agents.- Choice of Blowing Gas.- References.- Polyurethane Foams.- Chemistry.- Polyols and Polyisocyanates.- Modifiers and Additives.- One-Shots and Prepolymers.- Rigid Polyurethane and Polyisocyanurate Foam.- Processing Rigid Polyurethane Foam.- Flexible Polyurethane Foams.- Processing Flexible Polyurethanes.- Semirigid Foams.- Reaction Injection Molding.- The Process.- Materials.- Equipment.- The Mold.- Mold Gating.- Design.- Applications.- Polyurethane Processing Equipment.- Equipment for Spray Applications.- Equipment for Pour-in-Place Applications.- Equipment for Molding Applications.- Equipment for the Production of Slab Foam.- Equipment for Cast Elastomer Applications.- Accessory Items.- Thermoplastic Structural Foams.- History.- Properties of Structural Foams.- Combustibility.- Making Structural Foams.- Process Details.- Tooling.- Designing With Structural Foam.- Mechanical Properties.- Finishing.- Foam Extrusion.- Gas-Assisted Injection Molding.- General Design Considerations.- Applications.- Polystyrene Foams.- Extruded Polystyrene Foam.- Molded Bead Polystyrene Foam.- Bead Expansion.- Molding Shaped Parts.- Block Molding.- Expanded Polystyrene Sheet.- Polystyrene Foam Properties.- Applications for Extruded Polystyrene Foam.- Applications for Polystyrene Sheet.- Applications for Bead Polystyrene Foam.- Applications for Loose-Fill Polystyrene Foam.- Cellular Polyethylene.- Production.- Properties.- Applications.- Low Density Polyethylene Foams.- Compression Characteristics.- Tensile and Tear Strength.- Dynamic Cushioning.- Water Properties.- Thermal Properties.- Electrical Properties.- Fabrication.- Bonding.- PVC Foams.- Ionomer Foams.- Epoxy Foams.- Phenolic Foams.- Silicone Foams.- 20 Radiation Processing.- Ionizing Radiation.- Crosslinking Thermoplastics for Wire and Cable.- Cross-Linking Thermoplastics for Packaging Film.- Crosslinked Foamed Resins.- Graft Copolymers.- Radiation Induced Curing of Coatings.- Irradiated Wood-Plastic Composites.- Irradiated Concrete-Plastic Composites.- "Non-Ionizing Radiation".- Ultraviolet Radiation.- Infrared Radiation.- Inductive (Magnetic) Radiation.- Dielectric Energy.- Microwave Energy.- 21 Material and Parts Handling.- Vacuum Loaders.- Coloring Loaders.- On-the-Machine Blenders.- Bulk Vacuum Flow Systems.- Plastics Materials Drying.- Injection Molding Parts Handling.- Extruded Parts Handling.- Granulators and Shredders.- 22 Compounding.- Compounding Overview.- Mixing Theory.- Limitations of Mixing Theory.- Mixing Evaluation.- Fillers.- Plasticizers.- Colorants.- Heat Stabilizers.- Antioxidants.- Ultraviolet Light Absorbers.- Antistatic Agents.- Flame Retardants.- Blowing Agents.- Lubricants.- Methods of Compounding.- Intensive Dry Mixers.- Internal Intensive Batch Mixer.- Continuous Mixer.- Two-Rolls Mills and Pelletizers.- Underwater Pelletizer.- Single-Screw Extruders.- Compounder-Extruder.- Twin-Screw Extruder.- Compounding Lines.- 23 Finishing and Machining Plastics.- Finishing.- Filing.- Tumbling.- Grinding and Sanding.- Ashing, Buffing, and Polishing.- Machining Plastics.- Drilling and Reaming.- Tapping and Threading.- Turning and Milling.- Sawing.- Piercing, Trimming, and Routing.- Blanking and Die-Cutting.- Counterboring and Spotfacing.- Laser Machining.- Jigs, Fixtures, and Automatic Feeding Devices.- 24 Joining and Assembling Plastics.- Adhesive Bonding of Plastics.- Techniques.- Joints.- Solvent Cementing Thermoplastics.- Adhesives.- Adhesive Forms.- Pretreatment.- Cementing of Specific Plastics.- Cast Acrylic Sheeting.- Molded Acrylic Pieces.- Cellulosic Plastics.- Nylon.- Polycarbonate.- Polyethylene.- Polystyrene.- PPO Resins.- Polyvinyl Chloride and Vinyl Chloride-Acetate Copolymers.- TFE-Fluoroplastic.- Cementing of Thermosetting Plastics.- Welding of Thermoplastics.- High-Frequency or Dielectric Heat Sealing.- Thermal Sealing of Film and Sheet.- Hot Gas Welding.- Hot Plate Welding.- Induction Welding.- Spin or Friction Welding.- Ultrasonic Assembly.- Equipment.- Materials.- Joint Design.- Ultrasonic Staking.- Inserting.- Spot Welding.- Film and Fabric Welding and Cutting.- Vibration Welding.- Mechanical Joints.- Mechanical Fasteners.- Other Devices.- Swaging or Peening.- Press or Shrink Fitting.- Snap Fitting.- Integral Hinges.- Cold or Hot Heading.- Automation.- 25 Design Standards for Inserts.- Thread-Cutting or Thread-Forming Self-Tapping Screws.- Molded or Tapped Threads with Machine Screws.- Molded-In Inserts.- Post-Molded Inserts.- Design Standards.- Screw-Machine Inserts.- Cold-Forged Inserts.- Special Inserts.- Selection of Metal for Inserts.- Minimum Wall Thickness of Material Around Inserts.- Anchorage.- Insert Testing.- Problems in Molding With the Usual Types of Inserts.- Anchorage of Special Inserts.- Leakproof Inserts.- Special Inserts for Reinforcement.- Nonmetallic Inserts.- Preparation of Inserts Before Molding.- Cleaning Flash From Inserts.- Salvage of Inserts.- Relieving Molding Stresses Around Inserts.- 26 Decorating Plastics.- Surface Appearance Measurement.- Coatability and Coating Adhesion.- Surface Treatment.- Washing and Cleaning.- Mechanical Abrasion.- Chemical Etching.- Priming.- Flame Treatment.- Corona Discharge.- Plasma Treatment.- Paints and Coatings.- Coated Products.- Coating Techniques.- Dip Coating.- Flow Coating.- Curtain Coating.- Roll Coating.- Printing.- Screen Printing.- Flexographic Printing.- Gravure Printing.- Pad Printing.- Hot Transfer Process.- Laser Marking.- Dyeing.- Electroless Plating.- Electrolytic Plating.- Vacuum Metallizing.- Vacuum Evaporation.- Sputter Deposition.- Labels and Decals.- Water-Transfer Process.- In-Mold Decorating.- Flocking.- Embossing and Surface Texturing.- Grinding and Polishing.- References.- 27 Performance Testing of Plastics Products.- Performance Testing.- Specific Gravity and Density (ASTM D792).- Flow Rate (Melt Index) by Extrusion Plastometer (ASTM D1238).- Water Absorption (ASTM D570).- Environmental Stress Cracking (ASTM D1693).- Conditioning Procedures (ASTM D618).- Tensile Properties (ASTM D638).- Flexural Properties of Plastics (ASTM D790).- Stiffness of Flexure (ASTM D747).- Izod Impact (ASTM D256).- Tensile Impact (ASTM D1822).- Falling Dart Impact (ASTM DD1709, ASTM D2444, ASTM D3029).- Instrumented Impact.- Rockwell Hardness (ASTM D785).- Compressive Properties of Rigid Plastics (ASTM D695).- Durometer Hardness (ASTM D2240).- Shear Strength (ASTM D732).- Deformation Under Load (ASTM D621).- Vicat Softening Point (ASTM D1525).- Deflection Temperature under Fleurai Load (ASTM D648).- Brittleness Temperature (ASTM D746).- Permanent Effect of Heat (ASTM D794).- Haze and Luminous Transmittance of Transparent Plastics (ASTM D1003).- Luminous Reflectance, Transmittance and Color (ASTM E308).- Tests for Electrical Resistance (ASTM D257).- Dielectric Constant and Dissipation Factor (ASTM D150).- Arc Resistance (ASTM D495).- Outdoor Weathering (ASTM D1435).- Accelerated Weathering (ASTM G23) (Recommended practice).- Accelerated Exposure to Sunlight Using the Atlas Type 18FR Fade-Ometer (ASTM G23).- Pipe Tests (Commercial Standard CS 255).- Automation of Testing.