Technological Advances in Improved and Alternative Sources of Lipids

lipids.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Techniques of biotechnology and genetic engineering.- 3.2.1 Plant selection.- 3.2.2 Genetic engineering.- 3.3 Enzyme systems for fatty acid and oil synthesis.- 3.3.1 Glycolytic enzymes.- 3.3.2 De novo fatty acid synthesis.- 3.3.3 Glycerolipid synthesis.- 3.4 Oil body proteins.- 3.5 Commentary.- References.- 4 Edible oils from herbaceous crops.- 4.1 Typical compositions of oilseed unselected for lipid composition.- 4.2 Genetic alteration of oilseed composition.- 4.2.1 Oil percentage.- 4.2.2 Fatty acid composition.- 4.2.3 Other goals of plant breeding in oilseed crops.- 4.3 The introduction of new oilseed crops and crops with special characteristics.- 4.4 Potential herbaceous edible oilseed crops.- 4.4.1 Cuphea.- 4.4.2 Apiaceae.- 4.4.3 Evening primrose (Oenothea).- 4.4.4 Salicornia bigelovii Torr.- 4.4.5 Madia sativa and Iva annua.- 4.4.6 Lupine.- References.- 5 Tropical fruits: a source of lipids.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.2 Potential sources of fats and oils.- 5.3 Important sources of lipid.- 5.3.1 Mango.- 5.3.2 Papaya.- 5.3.3 Avocado.- 5.3.4 Buffalo gourd.- 5.3.5 Okra.- 5.3.6 Passion fruit.- 5.3.7 Tamarind.- 5.3.8 Guava.- 5.3.9 Durian.- 5.3.10 Breadfruit.- 5.3.11 Jackfruit.- 5.4 Commercial and village processing.- 5.5 Toxicology.- References.- 6 Nuts as a source of edible oil.- 6.1 Types and geographical location of production.- 6.1.1 World production and consumption of tree nuts.- 6.1.2 World production of nuts and seeds.- 6.2 Economic feasibility.- 6.2.1 Ammonia damaged pecans.- 6.2.2 Moldy nuts.- 6.2.3 Wormy cashew nuts.- 6.3 Composition and characteristics and comparison to common oils.- 6.3.1 Stability.- 6.3.2 Labeling.- 6.3.3 Fatty acid composition of tree nut oils.- 6.4 Use of gourmet oils in confections and cosmetics.- 6.5 Nutritive value.- 6.6 General methods of processing and refining.- 6.6.1 Dehulling.- 6.6.2 Shelling.- 6.6.3 Recovering nut oil.- 6.6.4 Roasting.- 6.6.5 Nut butters and pastes.- 6.6.6 Oil refining.- 6.6.7 Debittering.- 6.6.8 Deodorizing.- 6.6.9 Hydrogenation.- 6.6.10 Dewaxing.- 6.6.11 Margarine stock.- 6.7 Utilization of cake for feed.- 6.8 Trends in the nut industry.- 6.9 The future.- 6.10 Exports and imports.- 6.10.1 Nut storage.- References.- 7 Fruit and vegetable by-products as sources of oil.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Citrus seed.- 7.3 Cucurbit seed.- 7.4 Currant seed.- 7.4.1 Red currants.- 7.4.2 Black currants.- 7.4.3 Gooseberry.- 7.5 Grape seed.- 7.5.1 Agronomic statistics.- 7.5.2 Physical constants for oil.- 7.5.3 Oil composition.- 7.5.4 Other useful products obtained in oil recovery.- 7.6 Olive cake.- 7.6.1 Olive oil categories.- 7.7 Pome fruit.- 7.7.1 Apple seed (Malus sylvestris).- 7.7.2 Star apple (Crysophyllum albidum).- 7.7.3 Pear (Pyrus communis).- 7.7.4 Quince (Cydonia vulgaris).- 7.8 Stone fruits.- 7.8.1 Apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.).- 7.8.2 Peach (Prunus persica Sieb).- 7.8.3 Plum (Prunus domestica L.).- 7.8.4 Cherry.- 7.9 Rice bran.- 7.10 Tea seed.- 7.11 Tomato seed.- 7.11.1 Oil composition.- 7.11.2 Other useful products obtained in oil recovery.- 7.11.3 Economic feasibility for processing and utilization.- 7.12 Other seeds.- 7.12.1 Camellia seeds.- 7.12.2 Date seed.- 7.12.3 Red pepper.- 7.13 Summary.- References.- 8 Oils from under-utilised palm and forest products.- 8.1 Palms.- 8.1.1 The African oil palm, Elaeis guineensis.- 8.1.2 Coconut palm, Cocoa nucifera.- 8.2 Traditional processing.- 8.3 Nutritional properties of palm oil.- 8.4 Under-utilised palms.- 8.4.1 Acrocomia.- 8.4.2 Astrocaryum species.- 8.4.3 Attalea colenda.- 8.4.4 Bactris gasipaes.- 8.4.5 Jessenia bataua.- 8.4.6 Jubaea spectabilis.- 8.4.7 Mauritia vinifera.- 8.4.8 Mauritia flexuosa.- 8.4.9 Maximiliana regia.- 8.4.10 The babassu palm (Orbygnia species).- 8.5 Under-utilised sources of edible oil from trees.- 8.5.1 Argania.- 8.5.2 Caryocar species.- 8.5.3 Caryodendron orinocense.- 8.5 .4 Moringa species.- 8.5.5 Pentaclethra species.- 8.6 Discussion.- References.- 9 Yeasts, moulds, algae and bacteria as sources of Upids.- 9.1 Introduction.- 9.1.1 General background to microbial lipids.- 9.1.2 Development of the concept of microorganisms as sources of lipids.- 9.2 Process of microbial oil accumulation.- 9.2.1 Physiological aspects.- 9.2.2 Biochemistry of lipid accumulation.- 9.3 Yeasts.- 9.3.1 General aspects.- 9.3.2 Yeast oil as a cocoa butter equivalent.- 9.3.3 Other yeast fatty acids.- 9.4 Moulds.- 9.4.1 ?-Linolenic acid.- 9.4.2 Dihomo-?-linolenic acid.- 9.4.3 5,8,1l-cis-Eicosatrienoic acid ('Mead acid').- 9.4.4 Arachidonic acid.- 9.4.5 Eicosapentaenoic acid.- 9.4.6 Docosahexaenoic acid.- 9.4.7 Conclusions.- 9.5 Algae.- 9.5.1 ?-Linolenic acid.- 9.5.2 Arachidonic acid.- 9.5.3 Eicosapentaenoic acid.- 9.5.4 Docosahexaenoic acid.- 9.5.5 Conclusions.- 9.6 Bacteria.- 9.7 Acceptability and economic considerations.- References.- 10 Animal and marine Upids.- 10.1 Animal lipids.- 10.1.1 Lard.- 10.1.2 Tallow and butter.- 10.1.3 Trans acids.- 10.1.4 Poultry lipids and greases.- 10.2 Marine lipids.- 10.2.1 Triglyceride oils.- 10.2.2 Wax ester oils.- 10.2.3 Marine mammals.- 10.2.4 Shark and other fish liver oils.- 10.2.5 Production and refining of marine oils.- 10.2.6 Health aspects of marine lipids.- Acknowledgments.- References.- 11 Treatment, oxidation and health aspects of fats and oils.- 11.1 Introduction.- 11.2 Oxidation of fats and oils.- 11.2.1 Autoxidation.- 11.2.2 Thermal oxidation.- 11.2.3 Enzymatic oxidation.- 11.2.4 Photo-oxidation.- 11.3 Health effects of oxidized fats and oils.- 11.3.1 Whole oxidized fats/oils.- 11.3.2 Fatty acid hydroperoxides.- 11.3.3 Secondary products.- 11.3.4 Metabolic fate of hydroperoxides and secondary products.- 11.4 Regeneration of used oil.- 11.4.1 Introduction.- 11.4.2 Techniques that have been used for oil cleaning and regeneration.- 11.5 Summary and conclusion.- References.- 12 Enzymes in lipid technology and cocoa butter substitutes.- 12.1 Introduction.- 12.2 Oil extraction.- 12.2.1 Enzyme-assisted full pressing process.- 12.2.2 Enzyme-enhanced solvent extraction.- 12.2.3 Enzyme-assisted aqueous extraction.- 12.3 Production of lipids and oleochemical compounds.- 12.3.1 Production of free fatty acid.- 12.3.2 Production of monoacylglycerols.- 12.3.3 Diacylglycerol production processes.- 12.3.4 Production of triacylglycerols.- 12.3.5 Other enzymes: mediated processes.- 12.4 Enzyme-derived flavours from lipids.- 12.5 Enzymatic trans- and interesterification processes.- 12.6 Cocoa butter substitutes and equivalents.- 12.6.1 Characteristics of cocoa butter.- 12.6.2 Manufacturing processes for cocoa butter substitutes.- 12.7 Future developments of enzymes in lipid technology.- 12.8 Conclusion.- References.