The Chemistry of Contrast Agents in Medical Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Lanthanide-induced NMR shifts 2135.4 Lanthanide-induced relaxation rate enhancements 2195.5 Anisotropic hyperfine interactions on the first coordination sphere water molecules 2215.6 Evaluation of geometries by fitting NMR parameters 2225.7 Two-dimensional NMR 2245.8 139La and 89Y NMR 2245.9 Water hydration numbers 2255.10 Chirality of lanthanide complexes of polyaminocarboxylates 2275.11 Complexes of non-macrocyclic polyaminocarboxylates 2275.12 Complexes of macrocyclic ligands 2445.13 Fullerenes 265References 2676 Electronic Spin Relaxation and Outer-Sphere Dynamics of Gadolinium-Based Contrast Agents 277Pascal H. Fries and Elie Belorizky6.1 Introduction 2776.2 Theory of electronic spin relaxation of Gd3+ ions 2796.3 Outer-sphere dynamics 2896.4 Relaxivity quenching by the electronic spin relaxation 2956.5 Various experimental approaches of the electronic spin relaxation 3016.6 Conclusion and perspectives 3066.A Appendix: Similar evolutions of the macroscopic magnetization of the electronic spin and of its correlation functions 307References 3087 Targeted MRI Contrast Agents 311Peter Caravan and Zhaoda Zhang7.1 Introduction 3117.2 Serum albumin 3137.3 Fibrin 3197.4 Type I collagen 3257.5 Elastin 3267.6 Sialic acid 3277.7 alphaVß3 integrin 3287.8 Folate receptor 3297.9 Matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) 3307.10 E-selectin 3317.11 Fibrin-fibronectin complex 3327.12 Alanine aminopeptidase (CD13) 3327.13 Carbonic anhydrase 3337.14 Interleukin 6 receptor 3347.15 Estrogen and progesterone receptors 3357.16 Contrast agents based on natural products 3367.17 Messenger RNA (mRNA) 3377.18 Myelin 3387.19 DNA 3387.20 Conclusions 340References 3408 Responsive Probes 343Ce¿lia S. Bonnet, Lorenzo Tei, Mauro Botta, and E¿va To¿th8.1 Introduction 3438.2 Probes responsive to physiological parameters 3448.3 Conclusions 381References 3829 Paramagnetic CEST MRI Contrast Agents 387Enzo Terreno, Daniela Delli Castelli, and Silvio Aime9.1 Introduction 3879.2 Theoretical and practical considerations on CEST response 3889.3 Diamagnetic versus paramagnetic CEST agents 4009.4 Paramagnetic CEST agents 4019.5 Other exchange-mediated contrast modes accessible for paramagnetic CEST agents 4199.6 Concluding remarks 421References 42110 Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles for MRI 427Sophie Laurent, Luce Vander Elst, and Robert N. Muller10.1 Introduction 42710.2 Synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles 42810.3 Stabilization 43110.4 Methods of vectorization for molecular imaging 43210.5 Characterization 43610.6 Applications 44010.7 Conclusions 444Acknowledgements 444References 44411 Gd-Containing Nanoparticles as MRI Contrast Agents 449Klaas Nicolay, Gustav Strijkers, and Holger Gr¿ull11.1 Introduction 44911.2 Length scales and excretion pathways 45211.3 Preparation of Gd-containing nanoparticles 45411.4 Methods for nanoparticle characterization 46011.5 In vitro applications 46811.6 In vivo applications 47511.7 Conclusions and future perspectives 481Acknowledgements 483References 483Index 489