The Sounds of Language

Looking at waveforms 1297.4 Spectra 1317.5 Spectrograms 137Chapter summary 142Further reading 143Review exercises 144Further analysis and discussion 144Go online 148References 1488 Speech Analysis: Under the Hood 1498.1 Building sounds up 150configurations 1598.2 Breaking sounds down 160Chapter summary 169Further reading 170Review exercises 170Further analysis and discussion 171Go online 172References 1729 Hearing and Speech Perception 1739.1 Anatomy and physiology of the ear 1749.2 Neuro-anatomy 1819.3 Speech perception 186Chapter summary 194Further reading 195Review exercises 195Further analysis and discussion 196Go online 197References 19710 Phonology 1: Abstraction, Contrast, Predictability 19810.1 The necessity of abstraction 19910.2 Contrast and predictability: phonemes and allophones 20310.3 Some complicating factors 21110.4 Biuniqueness, Behaviorism, and the decline of phonemic analysis 214Chapter summary 216Further reading 216Review exercises 216Further analysis and discussion 217Further research 219Go online 219References 21911 Phonotactics and Alternations 22111.1 Phonotactic constraints 22211.2 Analyzing alternations 22511.3 Alternations: what to expect 232Chapter summary 246Further reading 246Review exercises 246Further analysis and discussion 248Go online 250References 25012 What Is Possible Language?: Distinctive Features 25312.1 Introduction 25412.2 Distinctive features 25712.3 How have our hypotheses fared? 270Chapter summary 271Further reading 272Review exercises 272Further analysis and discussion 272Further research 274Go online 274References 27413 Rules and Derivations in Generative Grammar 27513.1 Generative grammars 27613.2 Underlying representations 27713.3 Writing rules 27913.4 Autosegmental representations and feature geometry 28413.5 How have our hypotheses fared? 298Chapter summary 299Further reading 299Review exercises 300Further analysis and discussion 300Further research 303Go online 303References 30314 Constraint-based Phonology 30414.1 Constraints and rules in linguistic theory 30514.2 The basics of Optimality Theory 30914.3 Example problem solving in OT 31414.4 Challenges and directions for future research 322Chapter summary 324Further reading 325Review exercises 325Further analysis and discussion 325Further research 329Go online 329References 32915 Syllables and Prosodic Domains 33015.1 Syllables 33115.2 The prosodic hierarchy 341Chapter summary 348Further reading 348Review exercises 349Further analysis and discussion 350Further research 000References 35116 Stress 35316.1 What is linguistic stress? 35416.2 Cross-linguistic typology 35616.3 A feature for stress? 36016.4 Metrical structure 36016.5 Stress in English 365Chapter summary 370Further reading 371Review exercises 371Further analysis and discussion 372Further research 374Go online 374References 37417 Tone and Intonation 37517.1 Tone 37617.2 Intonation 392Chapter summary 397Further reading 397Review exercises 398Further analysis and discussion 399Further research 399Go online 400References 40018 Diachronic Change 40118.1 Languages change 40218.2 Historical reconstruction 408hypothesis 41118.3 History of the sounds of English 415Chapter summary 422Further reading 422Review exercises 423Further analysis and discussion 423Further research 423Go online 425References 42519 Variation 42619.1 Variation by place 42819.2 Other sources of variation 43719.3 Formalizing variation 441Chapter summary 444Further reading 445Review exercises 445Further analysis and discussion 446Further research 446Go online 446References 44620 Acquisition and Learning 44720.1 Language Acquisition and Language Learning 44820.2 Child language acquisition: the data 44820.3 Theories of L1 acquisition 45420.4 L2 Learning 45720.5 Acquisition, Learning, and Linguistic Theory 461Chapter summary 462Further reading 462Review exercises 462Further analysis and discussion 464Further research 464Go online 464References 464Index 465