The Sounds of Language

Further Reading 120 Review Exercises 120 Go online 121 7 Looking at Speech Waveforms, Spectra, and Spectrograms 122 7.1 Pre-Digital Speech Analysis 123 7.2 Digitization 125 7.3 Looking at Waveforms 132 7.4 Spectra 134 7.5 Spectrograms 139 Chapter Summary 145 Further Reading 145 Review Exercises 145 Further Analysis and Discussion 146 Further Research 149 Go online 150 References 150 8 Speech Analysis: Under the Hood 151 8.1 Building Sounds Up 152 8.2 Breaking Sounds Down 162 Chapter Summary 171 Further Reading 172 Review Exercises 172 Further Analysis and Discussion 172 Further Research 173 Go online 173 References 173 9 Hearing and Speech Perception 174 9.1 Anatomy and Physiology of the Ear 175 9.2 Neuro-anatomy 181 9.3 Speech Perception 186 Chapter Summary 194 Further Reading 194 Review Exercises 195 Further Analysis and Discussion 196 Go online 196 References 197 Part III Segmental Phonology 199 10 Phonology 1: Abstraction, Contrast, Predictability 201 10.1 The Necessity of Abstraction 202 10.2 Contrast and Predictability: Phonemes and Allophones 206 10.3 Some Complicating Factors 213 10.4 Structuralism, Behaviorism, and the Decline of Phonemic Analysis 217 Chapter Summary 218 Further Reading 219 Review Exercises 219 Further Analysis and Discussion 220 Further Research 222 Go online 223 References 223 11 Phonotactics and Alternations 224 11.1 Phonotactic Constraints 225 11.2 Analyzing Alternations 228 11.3 Alternations: What to Expect 235 Chapter Summary 248 Further Reading 249 Review Exercises 249 Further Analysis and Discussion 251 Go online 253 References 253 12 What Is a Possible Language? Distinctive Features 254 12.1 Introduction 255 12.2 Distinctive Features 258 12.3 How have our Hypotheses Fared? 270 Chapter Summary 272 Further Reading 272 Review Exercises 272 Further Analysis and Discussion 273 Further Research 275 Go online 275 References 275 13 Rules and Derivations in Generative Grammar 276 13.1 Generative Grammars 277 13.2 Underlying Representations 278 13.3 Writing Rules 280 13.4 Autosegmental Representations and Feature Geometry 289 13.5 How Have Our Hypotheses Fared? 303 Chapter Summary 303 Further Reading 304 Review Exercises 304 Further Analysis and Discussion 305 Further Research 310 Go online 310 14 Constraint-based Phonology 311 14.1 Constraints and Rules in Linguistic Theory 312 14.2 The Basics of Optimality Theory 315 14.4 Challenges and Directions for Further Research 328 Chapter Summary 330 Further Reading 331 Review Exercises 331 Go online 336 References 336 Part IV Suprasegmental Phonology 337 15 Syllables and Prosodic Domains 339 15.1 Syllables 340 15.2 The Prosodic Hierarchy 350 Chapter Summary 356 Further Reading 357 Review Exercises 357 16 Stress 363 16.1 What is Linguistic Stress? 364 16.2 Cross-Linguistic Typology 366 16.3 A Feature for Stress? 369 16.4 Metrical Structure 370 16.5 Stress in English 375 Chapter Summary 380 Further Reading 380 Review Exercises 380 Further Analysis and Discussion 382 Further Research 384 Go online 384 References 384 17 Tone and Intonation 385 17.1 Tone 386 17.2 Intonation 402 Chapter Summary 407 Further Reading 408 Review Exercises 408 Further Analysis and Discussion 409 Further Research 411 Go online 411 References 411 Part V Phonology and Morphology 413 18 Word Structure and Sound Structure 415 18.1 Basics of Morphology: Some Definitions and Examples 416 18.2 Phonologically Sensitive Morphology 424 18.3 What Is in the Lexicon? 432 Chapter Summary 433 Recommended Readings 434 Review Exercises 435 Further Analysis and Discussion 435 Further Research 440 Reference 441 19 Lexical Phonology 442 19.1 Lexical and Post-Lexical Phonology 443 19.2 Properties of Lexical Phonology 444 19.3 Theoretical Approaches to the Phonology/Morphology Interface 455 19.4 Summary and Directions for Future Research 463 Chapter Summary 464 Recommended Readings 465 Review Exercises 465 Further Analysis and Discussion 466 Further Research 468 References 469 Part VI Variation And Change 471 20 Diachronic Change 473 20.1 Languages Change 474 20.2 Historical Reconstruction 479 20.3 History of English 486 Chapter Summary 493 Further Reading 494 Review Exercises 494 Further Analysis and Discussion 495 Further Research 498 Go online 498 References 498 21 Sociolinguistic Variation 500 21.1 Variation by Place 502 21.2 Other Sources of Variation 511 Chapter Summary 515 Recommended Reading 516 On Regional Dialects 516 On Other Sources of Variation 516 Review Exercises 516 Further Analysis and Discussion 517 Further Research 518 Go online 518 References 518 22 Variation, Probability, and Phonological Theory 520 22.1 Variation Is Ubiquitous 521 22.2 Variable Rules 525 22.3 Constraint-based Approaches to Phonological Variation 527 22.4 Summary and Directions for Future Research 541 Chapter Summary 542 Suggested Reading 542 Review Exercises 542 Further Analysis and Discussion 543 Further Research 546 References 547 23 Child Language Acquisition 548 23.1 Language Acquisition and Language Learning 549 23.2 Research Tools 549 23.3 Perception in the First Year 551 23.4 Child Language Production 556 23.5 Language Acquisition and Linguistic Theory 560 Chapter Summary 564 Further Reading 564 Review Exercises 565 Further Analysis and Discussion 566 Further Research 567 Go online 567 References 567 24 Adult Language Learning 568 24.1 The Contexts of Adult Language Learning 569 24.2 Research Tools 571 24.3 L2 Perception 573 24.4 L2 Production 576 24.5 L2 Grammar Learning 578 24.6 Acquisition, Learning, and Linguistic Theory 582 Chapter Summary 583 Further Reading 584 Review Exercises 584 Further Analysis and Discussion 585 Further Research 586 Go online 586 References 587 Sources of Language Data 588 Index 598