Handbook of Advanced Plasma Processing Techniques
(Sprache: Englisch)
Pattern transfer by dry etching and plasma-enhanced chemical vapor de position are two of the cornerstone techniques for modern integrated cir cuit fabrication. The success of these methods has also sparked interest in their application to other techniques,...
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Pattern transfer by dry etching and plasma-enhanced chemical vapor de position are two of the cornerstone techniques for modern integrated cir cuit fabrication. The success of these methods has also sparked interest in their application to other techniques, such as surface-micromachined sen sors, read/write heads for data storage and magnetic random access memory (MRAM). The extremely complex chemistry and physics of plasmas and their interactions with the exposed surfaces of semiconductors and other materi als is often overlooked at the manufacturing stage. In this case, the process is optimized by an informed "trial-and-error" approach which relies heavily on design-of-experiment techniques and the intuition of the process engineer. The need for regular cleaning of plasma reactors to remove built-up reaction or precursor gas products adds an extra degree of complexity because the interaction of the reactive species in the plasma with the reactor walls can also have a strong effect on the number of these species available for etching or deposition. Since the microelectronics industry depends on having high process yields at each step of the fabrication process, it is imperative that a full understanding of plasma etching and deposition techniques be achieved.
Inhaltsverzeichnis zu „Handbook of Advanced Plasma Processing Techniques “
1 Some Fundamental Aspects of Plasma-Assisted Etching1.1 Introduction
1.2 The Evolution of Plasma Etching Equipment
1.2.1 The "Barrel" Systems
1.2.2 Planar and Cylindrical Diode Systems
1.2.3 Planar Triode Systems
1.2.4 Dual Frequency Planar Triode Systems
1.2.5 Inductively Coupled Plasmas, Wave Generated Plasmas, etc
1.3 The Role of Ions in Reactive Ion Etching
1.3.1 Ion-Assisted Gas-Surface Chemistry and the Resulting Etching Anisotropy
1.3.2 Mechanistic Aspects of Ion-Assisted Gas-Surface Chemistry
1.3.3 Other Factors That Influence Etching Anisotropy
1.4 The Influence of the Reactor Walls and Other Surfaces
1.4.1 The Etching Process
1.4.2 Polymer Deposition
1.4.3 Surface-Catalyzed Atom-Atom Recombination
1.5 Ion Beam-Based Methods
1.6 Summary
- References
2 Plasma Fundamentals for Materials Processing
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Single Particle Motion
2.3 Collision Processes
2.4 Velocity Distributions
2.5 Sheaths
2.6 Plasma Transport
2.7 Dielectric Properties
2.8 Plasma Sources for Thin Films Processing
2.8.1 Capacitive Sources
2.8.2 High Density Sources
2.8.3 Inductive Sources
2.8.4 ECR Sources
2.8.5 Helicon Sources
2.8.6 Wave Sources
2.8.7 Downstream Sources
- References
3 Plasma Modeling
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Historical Perspective
3.3 Plasma Modeling Issues
3.3.1 Well Mixed Reactor Models and Applications (0-D)
3.3.2 One-Dimensional Models and Applications
3.3.3 Two-Dimensional Models and Applications
3.3.4 Three-Dimensional Models and Applications
3.3.5 2-D and 3-D Profile Evolution Models and Applications
3.4 Chemical Reaction Mechanisms
3.4.1 Gas-Phase Kinetic and Transport Processes
3.4.2 Surface Chemistry
3.4.3 Reaction Mechanism Validation, Tuning, and Reduction
3.4.4 Sample Reaction Mechanism
3.5 Examples of Application of Plasma Modeling to Design or Optimization
3.5.1 Optimization of Plasma Cleaning Process to Reduce Reactor Emissions
3.5.2 Optimization of Chemical Downstream Etch Process
... mehr
Conditions
3.5.3 Reactor Design: Scaling-Up from 200 to 300 mm Wafers
3.5.4 Mapping Pressure Gradients in Reactor Pump Port and Inlet Regions
3.6 Future Directions of Plasma Modeling
- References
4 Plasma Reactor Modeling
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Reactor Scale Model
4.2.1 A Review of Various Approaches
4.2.2 Global Model
4.2.3 Continuum Reactor Model
4.2.4 Hybrid Model
4.3 Feature Level Modeling
4.4 Database Needs
4.5 Concluding Remarks
- References
5 Overview of Plasma Diagnostic Techniques
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Plasma Electrical Characterization
5.2.1 Electrical Diagnostics
5.2.2 Microwave Diagnostic Techniques
5.2.3 Ion-Energy Analyzers
5.3 Optical Diagnostic Techniques
5.3.1 Optical Emission
5.3.2 Optical Absorption Techniques
5.3.3 Laser-Induced Fluorescence
5.3.4 Negative Ion Photodetachment
5.3.5 Optogalvanic Spectroscopy
5.3.6 Thomson Scattering
- References
6 Mass Spectrometric Characterization of Plasma Etching Processes
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Application to Fundamental Studies
6.2.1 Silicon/Fluorine
6.2.2 Silicon/Chlorine
6.2.3 Gallium Arsenide/Chlorine
6.3 Application in Etch Processing Reactors
6.3.1 General Description of Experiments
6.3.2 IV-IV Semiconductors
6.3.3 III-V Semiconductors
6.3.4 II-VI Semiconductors
6.3.5 Metals and Perovskites
6.3.6 Issues in Application and Interpretation
6.4 Summary and Future Directions
- References
7 Fundamentals of Plasma Process-Induced Charging and Damage
7.1 Introduction
7.2 The Origin of Pattern-Dependent Charging
7.2.1 Differences in Ion and Electron Angular Distributions
7.2.2 Charging as a Result of Current Imbalance
7.2.3 Electron Shading Effects
7.3 The Notching Effect
7.3.1 Observations and Mechanisms
7.3.2 Phenomena that Influence Notching
7.3.3 Results from Self-Consistent Charging Simulations
7.3.4 Validation
7.4 Other Profile Effects Influenced by Charging
7.4.1 Reactive Ion Etching Lag
7.4.2 Microtrenching
7.5 Gate Oxide Degradation
7.5.1 The Driving Force for Current Injection
7.5.2 Tunneling Current Transients
7.5.3 The Influence of Electron and Ion Temperature
7.6 Charging Reduction Methodology
7.7 Concluding Remarks
7.7.1 Historical Perspective
7.7.2 Will Charging Problems Persist?
- References
8 Surface Damage Induced by Dry Etching
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Surface Damage in Si
8.2.1 Changes in Electrical Characteristics due to Dry Etching
8.2.2 Defects Evaluated by Surface Analysis
8.2.3 Modeling of Etch-Induced Damage
8.3 Surface Damage in III-V Semiconductors
8.3.1 Damage Dependence on Etch Conditions
8.3.2 Effects of Etch Time and Materials on Defect Generation
8.3.3 Changes in Electrical and Optical Characteristics
8.4 Damage Removal
8.4.1 Wet Etching, Dry Etching, Thermal Annealing, and Two-Step Etching
8.4.2 Passivation by Low-Energy Reactive Species
8.5 Summary
- References
9 Photomask Etching
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Optical Lithography
9.2.1 Photomask Basics
9.2.2 Chrome Photomasks
9.2.3 MoSi Photomasks
9.2.4 Phase Shift Mask Technology
9.3 X-Ray Lithography
9.3.1 X-Ray Lithography Basics
9.3.2 Gold Absorber-Based Masks
9.3.3 Refractory Masks
9.3.4 Amorphous Refractory-Based Masks
9.3.5 Thermal Characteristics of a Mask Etch Process
9.3.6 Hard Mask Materials
9.4 SCALPEL
9.4.1 SCALPEL Basics
9.4.2 SCALPEL Mask Blank Processing
9.4.3 SCALPEL Mask Pattern Transfer
9.5 EUVL
9.5.1 EUVL Basics
9.5.2 EUVL Masks
9.5.3 EUV Mask Pattern Transfer
9.6 Ion Projection Lithography
9.6.1 Ion Projection Lithography Basics
9.6.2 IPL Masks
9.6.3 IPL Mask Pattern Transfer
9.7 IPL Mask Distortion Issues
9.8 Conclusion
- References
10 Bulk Si Micromachining for Integrated Microsystems and MEMS Processing
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Etch Technologies
10.2.1 Wet Chemical Etching
10.2.2 Plasma Etching
10.2.3 Reactive Ion Etching
10.2.4 High-Density Plasma Etching
10.2.5 Deep Reactive Ion Etching
10.3 ECR Results
10.3.1 ECR Experimental
10.3.2 ECR Process Parameters
10.3.3 ECR Process Applications
10.4 DRIE Results
10.4.1 DRIE versus ICP Etch Comparison
10.4.2 Etch Rates and Selectivity to Masking Materials
10.4.3 Aspect Ratio Dependent Etching (ARDE) in DRIE
10.4.4 Etch Selectivities
10.5 DRIE Applications
10.5.1 Chemical Sensing Devices
10.5.2 Advanced Packaging
10.5.3 SOI DRIE Etching
10.6 Conclusions
- References
11 Plasma Processing of III-V Materials
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Dry Etching Techniques
11.2.1 Ion Beam Etching
11.2.2 Reactive Ion Etching
11.2.3 High-Density Plasma Reactive Ion Etching
11.3 Masking Materials and Methods
11.4 Dry Etching Chemistries
11.5 Dry Etching of GaAs and Related Materials
11.6 Dry Etching of InP and Related Materials
11.7 Dry Etching of GaN and Related Materials
11.8 Selective Dry Etching of III-V Materials
11.8.1 GaAs on AlGaAs
11.8.2 InGaAs on InAlAs
11.8.3 GaN on AlGaN
11.9 Conclusion
- References
12 Ion Beam Etching of Compound Semiconductors
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Definitions
12.2.1 Ion Beam Etching
12.2.2 Reactive Ion Beam Etching
12.2.3 Chemically Assisted Ion Beam Etching
12.2.4 Sputter Yield
12.3 Ion Sources
12.4 Historic Development
12.5 Grid Design, Beam Uniformity, and Divergence
12.6 Brief Overview of Etching Kinetics and Chemistry
12.7 Surface Quality and Etch Masking
12.8 RIBE Etch Technology
12.8.1 RIBE of GaAs and AlGaAs
12.8.2 RIBE of InP
12.8.3 RIBE of InGaAsP and InP
12.8.4 RIBE of AlGaInP, GaInP and AlGaInAs
12.8.5 RIBE of (Al,Ga)Sb, (In,Ga)Sb and InAsSb
12.8.6 RIBE of GaP and GaN
12.8.7 RIBE of ZnSe and ZnS
12.9 CAIBE Etch Technology
12.9.1 CAIBE of GaAs
12.9.2 CAIBE of AlGaAs
12.9.3 CAIBE of InP and InGaAsP
12.9.4 CAIBE of AlGaInP and AlGaInAs
12.9.5 CAIBE of (Al,Ga)Sb and InSb
12.9.6 CAIBE of (Al,Ga)N
12.10 Endpoint Detection
12.11 Damage
- References
13 Dry Etching of InP Vias
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Past Difficulties in Obtaining High Rate Etching for InP
13.2.1 High Bias CH4-based Etching of InP
13.2.2 Elevated Temperature Cl-based Etching of InP
13.3 High Density Plasma Sources for High InP Etch Rate
13.3.1 Reduced Bias CH4-Based ECR Etching of InP
13.3.2 Addition of Cl to CH4-Based ECR Etching of InP
13.3.3 Low Temperature Cl-Based Etching
13.4 Measurement of Plasma Heating for InP Etching
13.4.1 Wafer Heating During High-Density Plasma Etching
13.4.2 Impact of Plasma Heating for InP Etching
13.4.3 Effects of Chamber Pressure and Wafer Temperature on Etch Rate
13.5 Application to Via Hole Etching
13.5.1 Etch Mask and Etch Characteristics
13.5.2 Etching Slot Vias Using a Photoresist Mask
13.5.3 OES for Endpoint
13.6 Summary
- References
14 Device Damage During Low Temperature High-Density Plasma Chemical Vapor Deposition
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Experimental
14.3 Results and Discussion
14.4 Summary and Conclusions
- References
15 Dry Etching of Magnetic Materials
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Ion Milling
15.3 Cl2-Based ICP Etching of NiFe and Related Materials
15.4 Copper Dry Etching in Cl2/Ar
15.5 CO/NH3 Etching of Magnetic Materials
15.6 ECR and ICP Etching of NiMnSb
15.7 Dry Etching of LaCaMnOx and SmCo
15.8 Summary and Conclusions
- References
3.5.3 Reactor Design: Scaling-Up from 200 to 300 mm Wafers
3.5.4 Mapping Pressure Gradients in Reactor Pump Port and Inlet Regions
3.6 Future Directions of Plasma Modeling
- References
4 Plasma Reactor Modeling
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Reactor Scale Model
4.2.1 A Review of Various Approaches
4.2.2 Global Model
4.2.3 Continuum Reactor Model
4.2.4 Hybrid Model
4.3 Feature Level Modeling
4.4 Database Needs
4.5 Concluding Remarks
- References
5 Overview of Plasma Diagnostic Techniques
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Plasma Electrical Characterization
5.2.1 Electrical Diagnostics
5.2.2 Microwave Diagnostic Techniques
5.2.3 Ion-Energy Analyzers
5.3 Optical Diagnostic Techniques
5.3.1 Optical Emission
5.3.2 Optical Absorption Techniques
5.3.3 Laser-Induced Fluorescence
5.3.4 Negative Ion Photodetachment
5.3.5 Optogalvanic Spectroscopy
5.3.6 Thomson Scattering
- References
6 Mass Spectrometric Characterization of Plasma Etching Processes
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Application to Fundamental Studies
6.2.1 Silicon/Fluorine
6.2.2 Silicon/Chlorine
6.2.3 Gallium Arsenide/Chlorine
6.3 Application in Etch Processing Reactors
6.3.1 General Description of Experiments
6.3.2 IV-IV Semiconductors
6.3.3 III-V Semiconductors
6.3.4 II-VI Semiconductors
6.3.5 Metals and Perovskites
6.3.6 Issues in Application and Interpretation
6.4 Summary and Future Directions
- References
7 Fundamentals of Plasma Process-Induced Charging and Damage
7.1 Introduction
7.2 The Origin of Pattern-Dependent Charging
7.2.1 Differences in Ion and Electron Angular Distributions
7.2.2 Charging as a Result of Current Imbalance
7.2.3 Electron Shading Effects
7.3 The Notching Effect
7.3.1 Observations and Mechanisms
7.3.2 Phenomena that Influence Notching
7.3.3 Results from Self-Consistent Charging Simulations
7.3.4 Validation
7.4 Other Profile Effects Influenced by Charging
7.4.1 Reactive Ion Etching Lag
7.4.2 Microtrenching
7.5 Gate Oxide Degradation
7.5.1 The Driving Force for Current Injection
7.5.2 Tunneling Current Transients
7.5.3 The Influence of Electron and Ion Temperature
7.6 Charging Reduction Methodology
7.7 Concluding Remarks
7.7.1 Historical Perspective
7.7.2 Will Charging Problems Persist?
- References
8 Surface Damage Induced by Dry Etching
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Surface Damage in Si
8.2.1 Changes in Electrical Characteristics due to Dry Etching
8.2.2 Defects Evaluated by Surface Analysis
8.2.3 Modeling of Etch-Induced Damage
8.3 Surface Damage in III-V Semiconductors
8.3.1 Damage Dependence on Etch Conditions
8.3.2 Effects of Etch Time and Materials on Defect Generation
8.3.3 Changes in Electrical and Optical Characteristics
8.4 Damage Removal
8.4.1 Wet Etching, Dry Etching, Thermal Annealing, and Two-Step Etching
8.4.2 Passivation by Low-Energy Reactive Species
8.5 Summary
- References
9 Photomask Etching
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Optical Lithography
9.2.1 Photomask Basics
9.2.2 Chrome Photomasks
9.2.3 MoSi Photomasks
9.2.4 Phase Shift Mask Technology
9.3 X-Ray Lithography
9.3.1 X-Ray Lithography Basics
9.3.2 Gold Absorber-Based Masks
9.3.3 Refractory Masks
9.3.4 Amorphous Refractory-Based Masks
9.3.5 Thermal Characteristics of a Mask Etch Process
9.3.6 Hard Mask Materials
9.4 SCALPEL
9.4.1 SCALPEL Basics
9.4.2 SCALPEL Mask Blank Processing
9.4.3 SCALPEL Mask Pattern Transfer
9.5 EUVL
9.5.1 EUVL Basics
9.5.2 EUVL Masks
9.5.3 EUV Mask Pattern Transfer
9.6 Ion Projection Lithography
9.6.1 Ion Projection Lithography Basics
9.6.2 IPL Masks
9.6.3 IPL Mask Pattern Transfer
9.7 IPL Mask Distortion Issues
9.8 Conclusion
- References
10 Bulk Si Micromachining for Integrated Microsystems and MEMS Processing
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Etch Technologies
10.2.1 Wet Chemical Etching
10.2.2 Plasma Etching
10.2.3 Reactive Ion Etching
10.2.4 High-Density Plasma Etching
10.2.5 Deep Reactive Ion Etching
10.3 ECR Results
10.3.1 ECR Experimental
10.3.2 ECR Process Parameters
10.3.3 ECR Process Applications
10.4 DRIE Results
10.4.1 DRIE versus ICP Etch Comparison
10.4.2 Etch Rates and Selectivity to Masking Materials
10.4.3 Aspect Ratio Dependent Etching (ARDE) in DRIE
10.4.4 Etch Selectivities
10.5 DRIE Applications
10.5.1 Chemical Sensing Devices
10.5.2 Advanced Packaging
10.5.3 SOI DRIE Etching
10.6 Conclusions
- References
11 Plasma Processing of III-V Materials
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Dry Etching Techniques
11.2.1 Ion Beam Etching
11.2.2 Reactive Ion Etching
11.2.3 High-Density Plasma Reactive Ion Etching
11.3 Masking Materials and Methods
11.4 Dry Etching Chemistries
11.5 Dry Etching of GaAs and Related Materials
11.6 Dry Etching of InP and Related Materials
11.7 Dry Etching of GaN and Related Materials
11.8 Selective Dry Etching of III-V Materials
11.8.1 GaAs on AlGaAs
11.8.2 InGaAs on InAlAs
11.8.3 GaN on AlGaN
11.9 Conclusion
- References
12 Ion Beam Etching of Compound Semiconductors
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Definitions
12.2.1 Ion Beam Etching
12.2.2 Reactive Ion Beam Etching
12.2.3 Chemically Assisted Ion Beam Etching
12.2.4 Sputter Yield
12.3 Ion Sources
12.4 Historic Development
12.5 Grid Design, Beam Uniformity, and Divergence
12.6 Brief Overview of Etching Kinetics and Chemistry
12.7 Surface Quality and Etch Masking
12.8 RIBE Etch Technology
12.8.1 RIBE of GaAs and AlGaAs
12.8.2 RIBE of InP
12.8.3 RIBE of InGaAsP and InP
12.8.4 RIBE of AlGaInP, GaInP and AlGaInAs
12.8.5 RIBE of (Al,Ga)Sb, (In,Ga)Sb and InAsSb
12.8.6 RIBE of GaP and GaN
12.8.7 RIBE of ZnSe and ZnS
12.9 CAIBE Etch Technology
12.9.1 CAIBE of GaAs
12.9.2 CAIBE of AlGaAs
12.9.3 CAIBE of InP and InGaAsP
12.9.4 CAIBE of AlGaInP and AlGaInAs
12.9.5 CAIBE of (Al,Ga)Sb and InSb
12.9.6 CAIBE of (Al,Ga)N
12.10 Endpoint Detection
12.11 Damage
- References
13 Dry Etching of InP Vias
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Past Difficulties in Obtaining High Rate Etching for InP
13.2.1 High Bias CH4-based Etching of InP
13.2.2 Elevated Temperature Cl-based Etching of InP
13.3 High Density Plasma Sources for High InP Etch Rate
13.3.1 Reduced Bias CH4-Based ECR Etching of InP
13.3.2 Addition of Cl to CH4-Based ECR Etching of InP
13.3.3 Low Temperature Cl-Based Etching
13.4 Measurement of Plasma Heating for InP Etching
13.4.1 Wafer Heating During High-Density Plasma Etching
13.4.2 Impact of Plasma Heating for InP Etching
13.4.3 Effects of Chamber Pressure and Wafer Temperature on Etch Rate
13.5 Application to Via Hole Etching
13.5.1 Etch Mask and Etch Characteristics
13.5.2 Etching Slot Vias Using a Photoresist Mask
13.5.3 OES for Endpoint
13.6 Summary
- References
14 Device Damage During Low Temperature High-Density Plasma Chemical Vapor Deposition
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Experimental
14.3 Results and Discussion
14.4 Summary and Conclusions
- References
15 Dry Etching of Magnetic Materials
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Ion Milling
15.3 Cl2-Based ICP Etching of NiFe and Related Materials
15.4 Copper Dry Etching in Cl2/Ar
15.5 CO/NH3 Etching of Magnetic Materials
15.6 ECR and ICP Etching of NiMnSb
15.7 Dry Etching of LaCaMnOx and SmCo
15.8 Summary and Conclusions
- References
... weniger
Autoren-Porträt
The ability to make small features in Si, metals, dielectrics and other materials is what has enabled rapid advances in computing, communications, aeronautics and all other technologies that depend on microelectronics, miniature sensors and actuators and magnetic data storage. Plasma techniques enable the fine control and accurate pattern transfer and thus are central to our technology age.
Bibliographische Angaben
- 2012, Softcover reprint of the original 1st ed. 2000, XVI, 655 Seiten, 10 farbige Abbildungen, Maße: 15,5 x 23,5 cm, Kartoniert (TB), Englisch
- Herausgegeben: R.J. Shul, S.J. Pearton
- Verlag: Springer, Berlin
- ISBN-10: 3642630960
- ISBN-13: 9783642630965
- Erscheinungsdatum: 01.11.2012
Sprache:
Englisch
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