Nuclear and Radiochemistry

Radioactive Decay 7.2 Radioactive Equilibria 7.3 Secular Radioactive Equilibrium 7.4 Transient Radioactive Equilibrium 7.5 Half-life of Mother Nuclide Shorter than Half-life of Daughter Nuclide 7.6 Similar Half-lives 7.7 Branching Decay 7.8 Successive Transformations 8 Nuclear Radiation 8.1 General Properties 8.2 Heavy Charged Particles 8.3 Beta Radiation 8.4 Gamma Radiation 8.5 Neutrons 8.6 Short-lived Elementary Particles in Atoms and Molecules 9 Measurement of Nuclear Radiation 9.1 Activity and Counting Rate 9.2 Gas-Filled Detectors 9.2.1 Ionization Chambers 9.2.2 Proportional Counters 9.2.3 Geiger-Müller Counters 9.3 Scintillation Detectors 9.4 Semiconductor Detectors 9.5 Choice of Detectors 9.6 Spectrometry 9.7 Determination of Absolute Disintegration Rates 9.8 Use of Coincidence and Anticoincidence Circuits 9.9 Low-Level Counting 9.10 Neutron Detection and Measurement 9.11 Track Detectors 9.11.1 Photographic Emulsions and Autoradiography 9.11.2 Dielectric Track Detectors 9.11.3 Cloud Chambers 9.11.4 Bubble Chambers 9.11.5 Spark Chambers 9.12 Detectors Used in Health Physics 9.12.1 Portable Counters and Survey Meters 9.12.2 Film Badges 9.12.3 Pocket Ion Chambers 9.12.4 Thermoluminescence Dosimeters 9.12.5 Contamination Monitors 9.12.6 Whole-Body Counters 10 Statistical Considerations in Radioactivity Measurements 10.1 Distribution of Random Variables 10.2 Probability and Probability Distributions 10.3 Maximum Likelihood 10.4 Experimental Applications 10.5 Statistics of Pulse-Height Distributions 10.6 Setting Upper Limits When No Counts Are Observed 11 Techniques in Nuclear Chemistry 11.1 Special Aspects of the Chemistry of Radionuclides 11.1.1 Short-Lived Radionuclides and the Role of Carriers 11.1.2 Radionuclides of High Specific Activity 11.1.3 Microamounts of Radioactive Substances 11.1.4 Radiocolloids 11.1.5 Tracer Techniques 11.2 Target Preparation 11.3 Measuring Beam Intensity and Fluxes 11.4 Neutron Spectrum in Nuclear Reactors 11.4.1 Thermal Neutrons 11.4.2 Epithermal Neutrons and Resonances 11.4.3 Reaction Rates in Thermal Reactors 11.5 Production of Radionuclides 11.5.1 Production in Nuclear Reactors 11.5.2 Production by Accelerators 11.5.3 Separation Techniques 11.5.4 Radionuclide Generators 11.6 Use of Recoil Momenta 11.7 Preparation of Samples for Activity Measurements 11.8 Determination of Half-Lives 11.9 Decay-Scheme Studies 11.10 In-Beam Nuclear Reaction Studies 12 Nuclear Reactions 12.1 Collision Kinematics 12.2 Coulomb Trajectories 12.3 Cross-sections 12.4 Elastic Scattering 12.5 Elastic Scattering and Reaction Cross-section 12.6 Optical Model 12.7 Nuclear Reactions and Models 12.7.1 Investigation of Nuclear Reactions 12.7.2 Compound-Nucleus Model 12.7.3 Precompound Decay 12.7.4 Direct Reactions 12.7.5 Photonuclear Reactions 12.7.6 Fission 12.7.7 High-Energy Reactions 12.8 Nuclear Reactions Revisited with Heavy Ions 12.8.1 Heavy-Ion Fusion Reactions 12.8.2 Quasi-Fission 12.8.3 Deep Inelastic Collisions 12.8.4 "Simple" (Quasi-elastic) Reactions at the Barrier 12.8.5 "Complex" Transfer Reactions 12.8.6 Relativistic Heavy-Ion Collisions, the Phases of Nuclear Matter 13 Chemical Effects of Nuclear Transmutations 13.1 General Aspects 13.2 Recoil Effects 13.3 Excitation Effects 13.4 Gases and Liquids 13.5 Solids 13.6 Szilard-Chalmers Reactions 13.7 Recoil Labeling and Self-labeling 14 Influence of Chemical Bonding on Nuclear Properties 14.1 Survey 14.2 Dependence of Half-Lives on Chemical Bonding 14.3 Dependence of Radiation Emission on the Chemical Environment 14.4 Mössbauer Spectrometry 15 Nuclear Energy, Nuclear Reactors, Nuclear Fuel, and Fuel Cycles 15.1 Energy Production by Nuclear Fission 15.2 Nuclear Fuel and Fuel Cycles 15.3 Production of Uranium and Uranium Compounds 15.4 Fuel Elements 15.5 Nuclear Reactors, Moderators, and Coolants 15.6 The Chernobyl and Fukushima Accidents 15.7 Reprocessing 15.8 Radioactive Waste 15.9 The Natural Reactors at Oklo 15.10 Controlled Thermonuclear Reactors 15.11 Nuclear Explosives 16 Sources of Nuclear Bombarding Particles 16.1 Neutron Sources 16.2 Neutron Generators 16.3 Research Reactors 16.4 Charged-Particle Accelerators 16.4.1 Direct Voltage Accelerators 16.4.2 Linear Accelerators 16.4.3 Cyclotrons 16.4.4 Synchrocyclotrons, Synchrotrons 16.4.5 Radioactive Ion Beams 16.4.6 Photon Sources 17 Radioelements 17.1 Natural and Artificial Radioelements 17.2 Technetium and Promethium 17.3 Production of Transuranic Elements 17.3.1 Hot-Fusion Reactions 17.3.2 Cold-Fusion Reactions 17.3.3 48Ca-Induced Fusion Reactions 17.4 Cross-sections 17.5 Nuclear Structure of Superheavy Elements 17.6 Spectroscopy of Actinides and Transactinides 17.7 Properties of the Actinides 17.8 Chemical Properties of the Transactinides 17.8.1 Prediction of Electron Confi gurations and the Architecture of the Periodic Table of the Elements 17.8.2 Methods to Investigate the Chemistry of the Transactinides 17.8.3 Selected Experimental Results 18 Radionuclides in Geo- and Cosmochemistry 18.1 Natural Abundances of the Elements and Isotope Variations 18.2 General Aspects of Cosmochemistry 18.3 Early Stages of the Universe 18.4 Syntheses of Nuclei in Astrophysical Burning Processes 18.4.1 Evolution of Stars 18.4.2 Evolution of the Earth 18.4.3 Thermonuclear Reaction Rates 18.4.4 Hydrogen Burning 18.4.5 Helium Burning 18.4.6 Synthesis of Nuclei with A < 60 18.4.7 Synthesis of Nuclei with A > 60 18.5 The Solar Neutrino Problem 18.6 Absolute Neutrino Masses 18.6.1 From Pion Decay 18.6.2 From Tau Decay 18.6.3 From Nuclear beta-Decay 18.6.4 The Karlsruhe Tritium Experiment on the Neutrino Mass KATRIN 18.7 Interstellar Matter and Cosmic Radiation 18.7.1 Interstellar Matter 18.7.2 Cosmic Radiation 18.7.3 Radionuclides from Cosmic Rays 18.7.4 Cosmic-Ray Effects in Meteorites 18.7.5 Abundance of Li, Be, and B 19 Dating by Nuclear Methods 19.1 General Aspect 19.2 Cosmogenic Radionuclides 19.3 Terrestrial Mother/Daughter Nuclide Pairs 19.4 Natural Decay Series 19.5 Ratios of Stable Isotopes 19.6 Radioactive Disequilibria 19.7 Fission Tracks 20 Radioanalysis 20.1 General Aspects 20.2 Analysis on the Basis of Inherent Radioactivity 20.3 Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA) 20.4 Activation by Charged Particles 20.5 Activation by Photons 20.6 Special Features of Activation Analysis 20.7 Isotope Dilution Analysis 20.8 Radiometric Methods 20.9 Other Analytical Applications of Radiotracers 20.10 Absorption and Scattering of Radiation 20.11 Radionuclides as Radiation Sources in X-ray Fluorescence Analysis (XFA) 20.12 Analysis with Ion Beams 20.13 Radioisotope Mass Spectrometry 20.13.1 Resonance Ionization Mass Spectrometry (RIMS) 20.13.2 Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) 20.13.3 Measurements of Ionization Potentials 21 Radionuclides in the Life Sciences 21.1 Survey 21.2 Application in Ecological Studies 21.3 Radioanalysis in the Life Sciences 21.4 Application in Physiological and Metabolic Studies 21.5 Radionuclides Used in Nuclear Medicine 21.6 Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) 21.7 Positron Emission Tomography (PET) 21.8 Labeled Compounds 22 Radionuclides in the Geosphere and the Biosphere 22.1 Sources of Radioactivity 22.2 Mobility of Radionuclides in the Geosphere 22.3 Reactions of Radionuclides with the Components of Natural Waters 22.4 Interactions of Radionuclides with Solid Components of the Geosphere 22.5 Radionuclides in the Biosphere 22.6 Speciation Techniques with Relevance for Nuclear Safeguards, Verification, and Applications 22.6.1 Redox Reactions, Hydrolysis, and Colloid Formation of Pu(IV) 22.6.2 Investigation of the Homologs Th(IV) and Zr(IV) 22.6.3 Time-resolved Laser-induced Fluorescence 22.7 Conclusions 23 Dosimetry and Radiation Protection 23.1 Dosimetry 23.2 External Radiation Sources 23.3 Internal Radiation Sources 23.4 Radiation Effects in Cell 23.5 Radiation Effects in Humans, Animals, and Plants 23.6 Non-occupational Radiation Exposure 23.7 Safety Recommendations 23.8 Safety Regulations 23.9 Monitoring of the Environment 23.10 Geological Monitoring of Radioactive Waste Index