Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray Microanalysis
(Sprache: Englisch)
An ideal text for students as well as practitioners, this is a comprehensive introduction to the field of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray microanalysis. The authors emphasize the practical aspects of the techniques described.
Leider schon ausverkauft
versandkostenfrei
Buch (Gebunden)
79.13 €
39 DeutschlandCard Punkte
sammeln
- Lastschrift, Kreditkarte, Paypal, Rechnung
- Kostenlose Rücksendung
- Ratenzahlung möglich
Produktdetails
Produktinformationen zu „Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray Microanalysis “
An ideal text for students as well as practitioners, this is a comprehensive introduction to the field of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray microanalysis. The authors emphasize the practical aspects of the techniques described.
Klappentext zu „Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray Microanalysis “
This text provides students as well as practitioners with a comprehensive introduction to the field of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray microanalysis. The authors emphasize the practical aspects of the techniques described. Topics discussed include user-controlled functions of scanning electron microscopes and x-ray spectrometers and the use of x-rays for qualitative and quantitative analysis. Separate chapters cover SEM sample preparation methods for hard materials, polymers, and biological specimens. In addition techniques for the elimination of charging in non-conducting specimens are detailed.Inhaltsverzeichnis zu „Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray Microanalysis “
1. Introduction1.1. Imaging Capabilities
1.2. Structure Analysis
1.3. Elemental Analysis
1.4. Summary and Outline of This Book
- Appendix A. Overview of Scanning Electron Microscopy
- Appendix B. Overview of Electron Probe X-Ray Microanalysis
- References
2. The SEM and Its Modes of Operation
2.1. How the SEM Works
2.1.1. Functions of the SEM Subsystems
2.1.1.1. Electron Gun and Lenses Produce a Small Electron Beam
2.1.1.2. Deflection System Controls Magnification
2.1.1.3. Electron Detector Collects the Signal
2.1.1.4. Camera or Computer Records the Image
2.1.1.5. Operator Controls
2.1.2. SEM Imaging Modes
2.1.2.1. Resolution Mode
2.1.2.2. High-Current Mode
2.1.2.3. Depth-of-Focus Mode
2.1.2.4. Low-Voltage Mode
2.1.3. Why Learn about Electron Optics?
2.2. Electron Guns
2.2.1. Tungsten Hairpin Electron Guns
2.2.1.1. Filament
2.2.1.2. Grid Cap
2.2.1.3. Anode
2.2.1.4. Emission Current and Beam Current
2.2.1.5. Operator Control of the Electron Gun
2.2.2. Electron Gun Characteristics
2.2.2.1. Electron Emission Current
2.2.2.2. Brightness
2.2.2.3. Lifetime
2.2.2.4. Source Size, Energy Spread, Beam Stability
2.2.2.5. Improved Electron Gun Characteristics
2.2.3. Lanthanum Hexaboride (LaB6) Electron Guns
2.2.3.1. Introduction
2.2.3.2. Operation of the LaB6 Source
2.2.4. Field Emission Electron Guns
2.3. Electron Lenses
2.3.1. Making the Beam Smaller
2.3.1.1. Electron Focusing
2.3.1.2. Demagnification of the Beam
2.3.2. Lenses in SEMs
2.3.2.1. Condenser Lenses
2.3.2.2. Objective Lenses
2.3.2.3. Real and Virtual Objective Apertures
2.3.3. Operator Control of SEM Lenses
2.3.3.1. Effect of Aperture Size
2.3.3.2. Effect of Working Distance
2.3.3.3. Effect of Condenser Lens Strength
2.3.4. Gaussian Probe Diameter
2.3.5. Lens Aberrations
2.3.5.1. Spherical Aberration
2.3.5.2. Aperture Diffraction
2.3.5.3. Chromatic Aberration
2.3.5.4. Astigmatism
2.3.5.5. Aberrations in the Objective Lens
2.4. Electron Probe Diameter versus
... mehr
Electron Probe Current
2.4.1. Calculation of dmin and imax
2.4.1.1. Minimum Probe Size
2.4.1.2. Minimum Probe Size at 10-30 kV
2.4.1.3. Maximum Probe Current at 10-30 kV
2.4.1.4. Low-Voltage Operation
2.4.1.5. Graphical Summary
2.4.2. Performance in the SEM Modes
2.4.2.1. Resolution Mode
2.4.2.2. High-Current Mode
2.4.2.3. Depth-of-Focus Mode
2.4.2.4. Low-Voltage SEM
2.4.2.5. Environmental Barriers to High-Resolution Imaging
- References
3. Electron Beam-Specimen Interactions
3.1. The Story So Far
3.2. The Beam Enters the Specimen
3.3. The Interaction Volume
3.3.1. Visualizing the Interaction Volume
3.3.2. Simulating the Interaction Volume
3.3.3. Influence of Beam and Specimen Parameters on the Interaction Volume
3.3.3.1. Influence of Beam Energy on the Interaction Volume
3.3.3.2. Influence of Atomic Number on the Interaction Volume
3.3.3.3. Influence of Specimen Surface Tilt on the Interaction Volume
3.3.4. Electron Range: A Simple Measure of the Interaction Volume
3.3.4.1. Introduction
3.3.4.2. The Electron Range at Low Beam Energy
3.4. Imaging Signals from the Interaction Volume
3.4.1. Backscattered Electrons
3.4.1.1. Atomic Number Dependence of BSE
3.4.1.2. Beam Energy Dependence of BSE
3.4.1.3. Tilt Dependence of BSE
3.4.1.4. Angular Distribution of BSE
3.4.1.5. Energy Distribution of BSE
3.4.1.6. Lateral Spatial Distribution of BSE
3.4.1.7. Sampling Depth of BSE
3.4.2. Secondary Electrons
3.4.2.1. Definition and Origin of SE
3.4.2.2. SE Yield with Primary Beam Energy
3.4.2.3. SE Energy Distribution
3.4.2.4. Range and Escape Depth of SE
3.4.2.5. Relative Contributions of SE1 and SE2
3.4.2.6. Specimen Composition Dependence of SE
3.4.2.7. Specimen Tilt Dependence of SE
3.4.2.8. Angular Distribution of SE
- References
4. Image Formation and Interpretation
4.1. The Story So Far
4.2. The Basic SEM Imaging Process
4.2.1. Scanning Action
4.2.2. Image Construction (Mapping)
4.2.2.1. Line Scans
4.2.2.2. Image (Area) Scanning
4.2.2.3. Digital Imaging: Collection and Display
4.2.3. Magnification
4.2.4. Picture Element (Pixel) Size
4.2.5. Low-Magnification Operation
4.2.6. Depth of Field (Focus)
4.2.7. Image Distortion
4.2.7.1. Projection Distortion: Gnomonic Projection
4.2.7.2. Projection Distortion: Image Foreshortening
4.2.7.3. Scan Distortion: Pathological Defects
4.2.7.4. Moiré Effects
4.3. Detectors
4.3.1. Introduction
4.3.2. Electron Detectors
4.3.2.1. Everhart-Thornley Detector
4.3.2.2. "Through-the-Lens" (TTL) Detector
4.3.2.3. Dedicated Backscattered Electron Detectors
4.4. The Roles of the Specimen and Detector in Contrast Formation
4.4.1. Contrast
4.4.2. Compositional (Atomic Number) Contrast
4.4.2.1. Introduction
4.4.2.2. Compositional Contrast with Backscattered Electrons
4.4.3. Topographic Contrast
4.4.3.1. Origins of Topographic Contrast
4.4.3.2. Topographic Contrast with the Everhart-Thornley Detector
4.4.3.3. Light-Optical Analogy
4.4.3.4. Interpreting Topographic Contrast with Other Detectors
4.5. Image Quality
4.6. Image Processing for the Display of Contrast Information
4.6.1. The Signal Chain
4.6.2. The Visibility Problem
4.6.3. Analog and Digital Image Processing
4.6.4. Basic Digital Image Processing
4.6.4.1. Digital Image Enhancement
4.6.4.2. Digital Image Measurements
- References
5. Special Topics in Scanning Electron Microscopy
5.1. High-Resolution Imaging
5.1.1. The Resolution Problem
5.1.2. Achieving High Resolution at High Beam Energy
5.1.3. High-Resolution Imaging at Low Voltage
5.2. STEM-in-SEM: High Resolution for the Special Case of Thin Specimens
5.3. Surface Imaging at Low Voltage
5.4. Making Dimensional Measurements in the SEM
5.5. Recovering the Third Dimension: Stereomicroscopy
5.5.1. Qualitative Stereo Imaging and Presentation
5.5.2. Quantitative Stereo Microscopy
5.6. Variable-Pressure and Environmental SEM
5.6.1. Current Instruments
5.6.2. Gas in the Specimen Chamber
5.6.2.1. Units of Gas Pressure
5.6.2.2. The Vacuum System
5.6.3. Electron Interactions with Gases
5.6.4. The Effect of the Gas on Charging
5.6.5. Imaging in the ESEM and the VPSEM
5.6.6. X-Ray Microanalysis in the Presence of a Gas
5.7. Special Contrast Mechanisms
5.7.1. Electric Fields
5.7.2. Magnetic Fields
5.7.2.1. Type 1 Magnetic Contrast
5.7.2.2. Type 2 Magnetic Contrast
5.7.3. Crystallographic Contrast
5.8. Electron Backscatter Patterns
5.8.1. Origin of EBSD Patterns
5.8.2. Hardware for EBSD
5.8.3. Resolution of EBSD
5.8.3.1. Lateral Spatial Resolution
5.8.3.2. Depth Resolution
5.8.4. Applications
5.8.4.1. Orientation Mapping
5.8.4.2. Phase Identification
- References
6. Generation of X-Rays in the SEM Specimen
6.1. Continuum X-Ray Production (Bremsstrahlung)
6.2. Characteristic X-Ray Production
6.2.1. Origin
6.2.2. Fluorescence Yield
6.2.3. Electron Shells
6.2.4. Energy-Level Diagram
6.2.5. Electron Transitions
6.2.6. Critical Ionization Energy
6.2.7. Moseley's Law
6.2.8. Families of Characteristic Lines
6.2.9. Natural Width of Characteristic X-Ray Lines
6.2.10. Weights of Lines
6.2.11. Cross Section for Inner Shell Ionization
6.2.12. X-Ray Production in Thin Foils
6.2.13. X-Ray Production in Thick Targets
6.2.14. X-Ray Peak-to-Background Ratio
6.3. Depth of X-Ray Production (X-Ray Range)
6.3.1. Anderson-Hasler X-Ray Range
6.3.2. X-Ray Spatial Resolution
6.3.3. Sampling Volume and Specimen Homogeneity
6.3.4.Depth Distribution of X-Ray Production, ?(?z)
6.4. X-Ray Absorption
6.4.1. Mass Absorption Coefficient for an Element
6.4.2. Effect of Absorption Edge on Spectrum
6.4.3. Absorption Coefficient for Mixed-Element Absorbers
6.5. X-Ray Fluorescence
6.5.1. Characteristic Fluorescence
6.5.2. Continuum Fluorescence
6.5.3. Range of Fluorescence Radiation
- References
7. X-Ray Spectral Measurement: EDS and WDS
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometer
7.2.1. Operating Principles
7.2.2. The Detection Process
7.2.3. Charge-to-Voltage Conversion
7.2.4. Pulse-Shaping Linear Amplifier and Pileup Rejection Circuitry
7.2.5. The Computer X-Ray Analyzer
7.2.6. Digital Pulse Processing
7.2.7. Spectral Modification Resulting from the Detection Process
7.2.7.1. Peak Broadening
7.2.7.2. Peak Distortion
7.2.7.3. Silicon X-Ray Escape Peaks
7.2.7.4. Absorption Edges
7.2.7.5. Silicon Internal Fluorescence Peak
7.2.8. Artifacts from the Detector Environment
7.2.9. Summary of EDS Operation and Artifacts
7.3. Wavelength-Dispersive Spectrometer
7.3.1. Introduction
7.3.2. Basic Description
7.3.3. Diffraction Conditions
7.3.4. Diffracting Crystals
7.3.5. The X-Ray Proportional Counter
7.3.6. Detector Electronics
7.4. Comparison of Wavelength-Dispersive Spectrometers with Conventional Energy-Dispersive Spectrometers
7.4.1. Geometric Collection Efficiency
7.4.2. Quantum Efficiency
7.4.3. Resolution
7.4.4. Spectral Acceptance Range
7.4.5. Maximum Count Rate
7.4.6. Minimum Probe Size
7.4.7. Speed of Analysis
7.4.8. Spectral Artifacts
7.5. Emerging Detector Technologies
7.5.1. X-Ray Microcalorimetery
7.5.2. Silicon Drift Detectors
7.5.3. Parallel Optic Diffraction-Based Spectrometers
- References
8. Qualitative X-Ray Analysis
8.1. Introduction
8.2. EDS Qualitative Analysis
8.2.1. X-Ray Peaks
8.2.2. Guidelines for EDS Qualitative Analysis
8.2.2.1. General Guidelines for EDS Qualitative Analysis
8.2.2.2. Specific Guidelines for EDS Qualitative Analysis
8.2.3. Examples of Manual EDS Qualitative Analysis
8.2.4. Pathological Overlaps in EDS Qualitative Analysis
8.2.5. Advanced Qualitative Analysis: Peak Stripping
8.2.6. Automatic Qualitative EDS Analysis
8.3. WDS Qualitative Analysis
8.3.1. Wavelength-Dispersive Spectrometry of X-Ray Peaks
8.3.2. Guidelines for WDS Qualitative Analysis
- References
9. Quantitative X-Ray Analysis: The Basics
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Advantages of Conventional Quantitative X-Ray Microanalysis in the SEM
9.3. Quantitative Analysis Procedures: Flat-Polished Samples
9.4. The Approach to X-Ray Quantitation: The Need for Matrix Corrections
9.5. The Physical Origin of Matrix Effects
9.6. ZAF Factors in Microanalysis
9.6.1. Atomic number effect, Z
9.6.1.1. Effect of Backscattering (R) and Energy Loss (S )
9.6.1.2. X-Ray Generation with Depth, ?(?z)
9.6.2. X-Ray Absorption Effect, A
9.6.3. X-Ray Fluorescence, F
9.7. Calculation of ZAF Factors
9.7.1. Atomic Number Effect, Z
9.7.2. Absorption correction, A
9.7.3. Characteristic Fluorescence Correction, F
9.7.4. Calculation of ZAF
9.7.5. The Analytical Total
9.8. Practical Analysis
9.8.1. Examples of Quantitative Analysis
9.8.1.1. Al-Cu Alloys
9.8.1.2. Ni-10 wt% Fe Alloy
9.8.1.3. Ni-38.5 wt% Cr-3.0 wt% Al Alloy
9.8.1.4. Pyroxene: 53.5 wt% SiO2, 1.11 wt% Al2O3, 0.62 wt% Cr2O3, 9.5 wt% FeO, 14.1 wt% MgO, and 21.2 wt% CaO
9.8.2. Standardless Analysis
9.8.2.1. First-Principles Standardless Analysis
9.8.2.2. "Fitted-Standards" Standardless Analysis
9.8.3. Special Procedures for Geological Analysis
9.8.3.1. Introduction
9.8.3.2. Formulation of the Bence-Albee Procedure
9.8.3.3. Application of the Bence-Albee Procedure
9.8.3.4. Specimen Conductivity
9.8.4. Precision and Sensitivity in X-Ray Analysis
9.8.4.1. Statistical Basis for Calculating Precision and Sensitivity
9.8.4.2. Precision of Composition
9.8.4.3. Sample Homogeneity
9.8.4.4. Analytical Sensitivity
9.8.4.5. Trace Element Analysis
9.8.4.6. Trace Element Analysis Geochronologic Applications
9.8.4.7. Biological and Organic Specimens
- References
10. Special Topics in Electron Beam X-Ray Microanalysis
10.1. Introduction
10.2. Thin Film on a Substrate
10.3. Particle Analysis
10.3.1. Particle Mass Effect
10.3.2. Particle Absorption Effect
10.3.3. Particle Fluorescence Effect
10.3.4. Particle Geometric Effects
10.3.5. Corrections for Particle Geometric Effects
10.3.5.1. The Consequences of Ignoring Particle Effects
10.3.5.2. Normalization
10.3.5.3. Critical Measurement Issues for Particles
10.3.5.4. Advanced Quantitative Methods for Particles
10.4. Rough Surfaces
10.4.1. Introduction
10.4.2. Rough Specimen Analysis Strategy
10.4.2.1. Reorientation
10.4.2.2. Normalization
10.4.2.3. Peak-to-Background Method
10.5. Beam-Sensitive Specimens (Biological, Polymeric)
10.5.1. Thin-Section Analysis
10.5.2. Bulk Biological and Organic Specimens
10.6. X-Ray Mapping
10.6.1. Relative Merits of WDS and EDS for Mapping
10.6.2. Digital Dot Mapping
10.6.3. Gray-Scale Mapping
10.6.3.1. The Need for Scaling in Gray-Scale Mapping
10.6.3.2. Artifacts in X-Ray Mapping
10.6.4. Compositional Mapping
10.6.4.1. Principles of Compositional Mapping
10.6.4.2. Advanced Spectrum Collection Strategies for Compositional Mapping
10.6.5. The Use of Color in Analyzing and Presenting X-Ray\ Maps
10.6.5.1. Primary Color Superposition
10.6.5.2. Pseudocolor Scales
10.7. Light Element Analysis
10.7.1. Optimization of Light Element X-Ray Generation
10.7.2. X-Ray Spectrometry of the Light Elements
10.7.2.1. Si EDS
10.7.2.2. WDS
10.7.3. Special Measurement Problems for the Light Elements
10.7.3.1. Contamination
10.7.3.2. Overvoltage Effects
10.7.3.3. Absorption Effects
10.7.4.Light Element Quantification
10.8. Low-Voltage Microanalysis
10.8.1. "Low-Voltage" versus "Conventional" Microanalysis
10.8.2. X-Ray Production Range
10.8.2.1. Contribution of the Beam Size to the X-Ray Analytical Resolution
10.8.2.2. A Consequence of the X-Ray Range under Low-Voltage Conditions
10.8.3. X-Ray Spectrometry in Low-Voltage Microanalysis
10.8.3.1. The Oxygen and Carbon Problem
10.8.3.2. Quantitative X-Ray Microanalysis at Low Voltage
10.9. Report of Analysis
- References
11. Specimen Preparation of Hard Materials: Metals, Ceramics, Rocks, Minerals, Microelectronic and Packaged Devices, Particles, and Fibers
11.1. Metals
11.1.1. Specimen Preparation for Surface Topography
11.1.2. Specimen Preparation for Microstructural and Microchemical Analysis
11.1.2.1. Initial Sample Selection and Specimen Preparation Steps
11.1.2.2. Final Polishing Steps
11.1.2.3. Preparation for Microanalysis
11.2. Ceramics and Geological Samples
11.2.1. Initial Specimen Preparation: Topography and Microstructure
11.2.2. Mounting and Polishing for Microstructural and Microchemical Analysis
11.2.3. Final Specimen Preparation for Microstructural and Microchemical Analysis
11.3. Microelectronics and Packages
11.3.1. Initial Specimen Preparation
11.3.2. Polishing
11.3.3. Final Preparation
11.4. Imaging of Semiconductors
11.4.1. Voltage Contrast
11.4.2. Charge Collection
11.5. Preparation for Electron Diffraction in the SEM
11.5.1. Channeling Patterns and Channeling Contrast
11.5.2. Electron Backscatter Diffraction
11.6. Special Techniques
11.6.1. Plasma Cleaning
11.6.2. Focused-Ion-Beam Sample Preparation for SEM
11.6.2.1. Application of FIB for Semiconductors
11.6.2.2. Applications of FIB in Materials Science
11.7.Particles and Fibers
11.7.1. Particle Substrates and Supports
11.7.1.1. Bulk Particle Substrates
11.7.1.2. Thin Particle Supports
11.7.2. Particle Mounting Techniques
11.7.3. Particles Collected on Filters
11.7.4. Particles in a Solid Matrix
11.7.5. Transfer of Individual Particles
- References
12. Specimen Preparation of Polymer Materials
12.1. Introduction
12.2. Microscopy of Polymers
12.2.1. Radiation Effects
12.2.2. Imaging Compromises
12.2.3. Metal Coating Polymers for Imaging
12.2.4. X-Ray Microanalysis of Polymers
12.3. Specimen Preparation Methods for Polymers
12.3.1. Simple Preparation Methods
12.3.2. Polishing of Polymers
12.3.3. Microtomy of Polymers
12.3.4. Fracture of Polymer Materials
12.3.5. Staining of Polymers
12.3.5.1. Osmium Tetroxide and Ruthenium Tetroxide
12.3.5.2. Ebonite
12.3.5.3. Chlorosulfonic Acid and Phosphotungstic Acid
12.3.6. Etching of Polymers
12.3.7. Replication of Polymers
12.3.8. Rapid Cooling and Drying Methods for Polymers
12.3.8.1. Simple Cooling Methods
12.3.8.2. Freeze-Drying
12.3.8.3. Critical-Point Drying
12.4. Choosing Specimen Preparation Methods
12.4.1. Fibers
12.4.2. Films and Membranes
12.4.3. Engineering Resins and Plastics
12.4.4. Emulsions and Adhesives
12.5. Problem-Solving Protocol
12.6. Image Interpretation and Artifacts
- References
13. Ambient-Temperature Specimen Preparation of Biological Material
13.1. Introduction
13.2. Preparative Procedures for the Structural SEM of Single Cells, Biological Particles, and Fibers
13.2.1. Particulate, Cellular, and Fibrous Organic Material
13.2.2. Dry Organic Particles and Fibers
13.2.2.1. Organic Particles and Fibers on a Filter
13.2.2.2. Organic Particles and Fibers Entrained within a Filter
13.2.2.3. Organic Particulate Matter Suspended in a Liquid
13.2.2.4. Manipulating Individual Organic Particles
13.3. Preparative Procedures for the Structural Observation of Large Soft Biological Specimens
13.3.1. Introduction
13.3.2. Sample Handling before Fixation
13.3.3. Fixation
13.3.4. Microwave Fixation
13.3.5. Conductive Infiltration
13.3.6. Dehydration
13.3.7. Embedding
13.3.8. Exposing the Internal Contents of Bulk Specimens
13.3.8.1. Mechanical Dissection
13.3.8.2. High-Energy-Beam Surface Erosion
13.3.8.3. Chemical Dissection
13.3.8.4. Surface Replicas and Corrosion Casts
13.3.9. Specimen Supports and Methods of Sample Attachment
13.3.10. Artifacts
13.4. Preparative Procedures for the in Situ Chemical Analysis of Biological Specimens in the SEM
13.4.1. Introduction
13.4.2. Preparative Procedures for Elemental Analysis Using X-Ray Microanalysis
13.4.2.1. The Nature and Extent of the Problem
13.4.2.2. Types of Sample That May be Analyzed
13.4.2.3. The General Strategy for Sample Preparation
13.4.2.4. Criteria for Judging Satisfactory Sample Preparation
13.4.2.5. Fixation and Stabilization
13.4.2.6. Precipitation Techniques
13.4.2.7. Procedures for Sample Dehydration, Embedding, and Staining
13.4.2.8. Specimen Supports
13.4.3. Preparative Procedures for Localizing Molecules Using Histochemistry
13.4.3.1. Staining and Histochemical Methods
13.4.3.2. Atomic Number Contrast with Backscattered Electrons
13.4.4. Preparative Procedures for Localizing Macromolecues Using Immunocytochemistry
13.4.4.1. Introduction
13.4.4.2. The Antibody-Antigen Reaction
13.4.4.3. General Features of Specimen Preparation for Immunocytochemistry
13.4.4.4. Imaging Procedures in the SEM
- References
14. Low-Temperature Specimen Preparation
14.1. Introduction
14.2. The Properties of Liquid Water and Ice
14.3. Conversion of Liquid Water to Ice
14.4. Specimen Pretreatment before Rapid (Quench) Cooling
14.4.1. Minimizing Sample Size and Specimen Holders
14.4.2. Maximizing Undercooling
14.4.3. Altering the Nucleation Process
14.4.4. Artificially Depressing the Sample Freezing Point
14.4.5. Chemical Fixation
14.5. Quench Cooling
14.5.1. Liquid Cryogens
14.5.2. Solid Cryogens
14.5.3. Methods for Quench Cooling
14.5.4. Comparison of Quench Cooling Rates
14.6. Low-Temperature Storage and Sample Transfer
14.7. Manipulation of Frozen Specimens: Cryosectioning, Cryofracturing, and Cryoplaning
14.7.1. Cryosectioning
14.7.2. Cryofracturing
14.7.3. Cryopolishing or Cryoplaning
14.8. Ways to Handle Frozen Liquids within the Specimen
14.8.1. Frozen-Hydrated and Frozen Samples
14.8.2. Freeze-Drying
14.8.2.1. Physical Principles Involved in Freeze-Drying
14.8.2.2. Equipment Needed for Freeze-Drying
14.8.2.3. Artifacts Associated with Freeze-Drying
14.8.3. Freeze Substitution and Low-Temperature Embedding
14.8.3.1. Physical Principles Involved in Freeze Substitution and Low-Temperature Embedding
14.8.3.2. Equipment Needed for Freeze Substitution and Low-Temperature Embedding
14.9. Procedures for Hydrated Organic Systems
14.10. Procedures for Hydrated Inorganic Systems
14.11. Procedures for Nonaqueous Liquids
14.12. Imaging and Analyzing Samples at Low Temperatures
- References
15. Procedures for Elimination of Charging in Nonconducting Specimens
15.1. Introduction
15.2. Recognizing Charging Phenomena
15.3. Procedures for Overcoming the Problems of Charging
15.4. Vacuum Evaporation Coating
15.4.1. High-Vacuum Evaporation Methods
15.4.2. Low-Vacuum Evaporation Methods
15.5. Sputter Coating
15.5.1. Plasma Magnetron Sputter Coating
15.5.2. Ion Beam and Penning Sputtering
15.6. High-Resolution Coating Methods
15.7. Coating for Analytical Studies
15.8. Coating Procedures for Samples Maintained at Low Temperatures
15.9. Coating Thickness
5.10. Damage and Artifacts on Coated Samples
15.11. Summary of Coating Guidelines
- References
- Enhancements CD
2.4.1. Calculation of dmin and imax
2.4.1.1. Minimum Probe Size
2.4.1.2. Minimum Probe Size at 10-30 kV
2.4.1.3. Maximum Probe Current at 10-30 kV
2.4.1.4. Low-Voltage Operation
2.4.1.5. Graphical Summary
2.4.2. Performance in the SEM Modes
2.4.2.1. Resolution Mode
2.4.2.2. High-Current Mode
2.4.2.3. Depth-of-Focus Mode
2.4.2.4. Low-Voltage SEM
2.4.2.5. Environmental Barriers to High-Resolution Imaging
- References
3. Electron Beam-Specimen Interactions
3.1. The Story So Far
3.2. The Beam Enters the Specimen
3.3. The Interaction Volume
3.3.1. Visualizing the Interaction Volume
3.3.2. Simulating the Interaction Volume
3.3.3. Influence of Beam and Specimen Parameters on the Interaction Volume
3.3.3.1. Influence of Beam Energy on the Interaction Volume
3.3.3.2. Influence of Atomic Number on the Interaction Volume
3.3.3.3. Influence of Specimen Surface Tilt on the Interaction Volume
3.3.4. Electron Range: A Simple Measure of the Interaction Volume
3.3.4.1. Introduction
3.3.4.2. The Electron Range at Low Beam Energy
3.4. Imaging Signals from the Interaction Volume
3.4.1. Backscattered Electrons
3.4.1.1. Atomic Number Dependence of BSE
3.4.1.2. Beam Energy Dependence of BSE
3.4.1.3. Tilt Dependence of BSE
3.4.1.4. Angular Distribution of BSE
3.4.1.5. Energy Distribution of BSE
3.4.1.6. Lateral Spatial Distribution of BSE
3.4.1.7. Sampling Depth of BSE
3.4.2. Secondary Electrons
3.4.2.1. Definition and Origin of SE
3.4.2.2. SE Yield with Primary Beam Energy
3.4.2.3. SE Energy Distribution
3.4.2.4. Range and Escape Depth of SE
3.4.2.5. Relative Contributions of SE1 and SE2
3.4.2.6. Specimen Composition Dependence of SE
3.4.2.7. Specimen Tilt Dependence of SE
3.4.2.8. Angular Distribution of SE
- References
4. Image Formation and Interpretation
4.1. The Story So Far
4.2. The Basic SEM Imaging Process
4.2.1. Scanning Action
4.2.2. Image Construction (Mapping)
4.2.2.1. Line Scans
4.2.2.2. Image (Area) Scanning
4.2.2.3. Digital Imaging: Collection and Display
4.2.3. Magnification
4.2.4. Picture Element (Pixel) Size
4.2.5. Low-Magnification Operation
4.2.6. Depth of Field (Focus)
4.2.7. Image Distortion
4.2.7.1. Projection Distortion: Gnomonic Projection
4.2.7.2. Projection Distortion: Image Foreshortening
4.2.7.3. Scan Distortion: Pathological Defects
4.2.7.4. Moiré Effects
4.3. Detectors
4.3.1. Introduction
4.3.2. Electron Detectors
4.3.2.1. Everhart-Thornley Detector
4.3.2.2. "Through-the-Lens" (TTL) Detector
4.3.2.3. Dedicated Backscattered Electron Detectors
4.4. The Roles of the Specimen and Detector in Contrast Formation
4.4.1. Contrast
4.4.2. Compositional (Atomic Number) Contrast
4.4.2.1. Introduction
4.4.2.2. Compositional Contrast with Backscattered Electrons
4.4.3. Topographic Contrast
4.4.3.1. Origins of Topographic Contrast
4.4.3.2. Topographic Contrast with the Everhart-Thornley Detector
4.4.3.3. Light-Optical Analogy
4.4.3.4. Interpreting Topographic Contrast with Other Detectors
4.5. Image Quality
4.6. Image Processing for the Display of Contrast Information
4.6.1. The Signal Chain
4.6.2. The Visibility Problem
4.6.3. Analog and Digital Image Processing
4.6.4. Basic Digital Image Processing
4.6.4.1. Digital Image Enhancement
4.6.4.2. Digital Image Measurements
- References
5. Special Topics in Scanning Electron Microscopy
5.1. High-Resolution Imaging
5.1.1. The Resolution Problem
5.1.2. Achieving High Resolution at High Beam Energy
5.1.3. High-Resolution Imaging at Low Voltage
5.2. STEM-in-SEM: High Resolution for the Special Case of Thin Specimens
5.3. Surface Imaging at Low Voltage
5.4. Making Dimensional Measurements in the SEM
5.5. Recovering the Third Dimension: Stereomicroscopy
5.5.1. Qualitative Stereo Imaging and Presentation
5.5.2. Quantitative Stereo Microscopy
5.6. Variable-Pressure and Environmental SEM
5.6.1. Current Instruments
5.6.2. Gas in the Specimen Chamber
5.6.2.1. Units of Gas Pressure
5.6.2.2. The Vacuum System
5.6.3. Electron Interactions with Gases
5.6.4. The Effect of the Gas on Charging
5.6.5. Imaging in the ESEM and the VPSEM
5.6.6. X-Ray Microanalysis in the Presence of a Gas
5.7. Special Contrast Mechanisms
5.7.1. Electric Fields
5.7.2. Magnetic Fields
5.7.2.1. Type 1 Magnetic Contrast
5.7.2.2. Type 2 Magnetic Contrast
5.7.3. Crystallographic Contrast
5.8. Electron Backscatter Patterns
5.8.1. Origin of EBSD Patterns
5.8.2. Hardware for EBSD
5.8.3. Resolution of EBSD
5.8.3.1. Lateral Spatial Resolution
5.8.3.2. Depth Resolution
5.8.4. Applications
5.8.4.1. Orientation Mapping
5.8.4.2. Phase Identification
- References
6. Generation of X-Rays in the SEM Specimen
6.1. Continuum X-Ray Production (Bremsstrahlung)
6.2. Characteristic X-Ray Production
6.2.1. Origin
6.2.2. Fluorescence Yield
6.2.3. Electron Shells
6.2.4. Energy-Level Diagram
6.2.5. Electron Transitions
6.2.6. Critical Ionization Energy
6.2.7. Moseley's Law
6.2.8. Families of Characteristic Lines
6.2.9. Natural Width of Characteristic X-Ray Lines
6.2.10. Weights of Lines
6.2.11. Cross Section for Inner Shell Ionization
6.2.12. X-Ray Production in Thin Foils
6.2.13. X-Ray Production in Thick Targets
6.2.14. X-Ray Peak-to-Background Ratio
6.3. Depth of X-Ray Production (X-Ray Range)
6.3.1. Anderson-Hasler X-Ray Range
6.3.2. X-Ray Spatial Resolution
6.3.3. Sampling Volume and Specimen Homogeneity
6.3.4.Depth Distribution of X-Ray Production, ?(?z)
6.4. X-Ray Absorption
6.4.1. Mass Absorption Coefficient for an Element
6.4.2. Effect of Absorption Edge on Spectrum
6.4.3. Absorption Coefficient for Mixed-Element Absorbers
6.5. X-Ray Fluorescence
6.5.1. Characteristic Fluorescence
6.5.2. Continuum Fluorescence
6.5.3. Range of Fluorescence Radiation
- References
7. X-Ray Spectral Measurement: EDS and WDS
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometer
7.2.1. Operating Principles
7.2.2. The Detection Process
7.2.3. Charge-to-Voltage Conversion
7.2.4. Pulse-Shaping Linear Amplifier and Pileup Rejection Circuitry
7.2.5. The Computer X-Ray Analyzer
7.2.6. Digital Pulse Processing
7.2.7. Spectral Modification Resulting from the Detection Process
7.2.7.1. Peak Broadening
7.2.7.2. Peak Distortion
7.2.7.3. Silicon X-Ray Escape Peaks
7.2.7.4. Absorption Edges
7.2.7.5. Silicon Internal Fluorescence Peak
7.2.8. Artifacts from the Detector Environment
7.2.9. Summary of EDS Operation and Artifacts
7.3. Wavelength-Dispersive Spectrometer
7.3.1. Introduction
7.3.2. Basic Description
7.3.3. Diffraction Conditions
7.3.4. Diffracting Crystals
7.3.5. The X-Ray Proportional Counter
7.3.6. Detector Electronics
7.4. Comparison of Wavelength-Dispersive Spectrometers with Conventional Energy-Dispersive Spectrometers
7.4.1. Geometric Collection Efficiency
7.4.2. Quantum Efficiency
7.4.3. Resolution
7.4.4. Spectral Acceptance Range
7.4.5. Maximum Count Rate
7.4.6. Minimum Probe Size
7.4.7. Speed of Analysis
7.4.8. Spectral Artifacts
7.5. Emerging Detector Technologies
7.5.1. X-Ray Microcalorimetery
7.5.2. Silicon Drift Detectors
7.5.3. Parallel Optic Diffraction-Based Spectrometers
- References
8. Qualitative X-Ray Analysis
8.1. Introduction
8.2. EDS Qualitative Analysis
8.2.1. X-Ray Peaks
8.2.2. Guidelines for EDS Qualitative Analysis
8.2.2.1. General Guidelines for EDS Qualitative Analysis
8.2.2.2. Specific Guidelines for EDS Qualitative Analysis
8.2.3. Examples of Manual EDS Qualitative Analysis
8.2.4. Pathological Overlaps in EDS Qualitative Analysis
8.2.5. Advanced Qualitative Analysis: Peak Stripping
8.2.6. Automatic Qualitative EDS Analysis
8.3. WDS Qualitative Analysis
8.3.1. Wavelength-Dispersive Spectrometry of X-Ray Peaks
8.3.2. Guidelines for WDS Qualitative Analysis
- References
9. Quantitative X-Ray Analysis: The Basics
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Advantages of Conventional Quantitative X-Ray Microanalysis in the SEM
9.3. Quantitative Analysis Procedures: Flat-Polished Samples
9.4. The Approach to X-Ray Quantitation: The Need for Matrix Corrections
9.5. The Physical Origin of Matrix Effects
9.6. ZAF Factors in Microanalysis
9.6.1. Atomic number effect, Z
9.6.1.1. Effect of Backscattering (R) and Energy Loss (S )
9.6.1.2. X-Ray Generation with Depth, ?(?z)
9.6.2. X-Ray Absorption Effect, A
9.6.3. X-Ray Fluorescence, F
9.7. Calculation of ZAF Factors
9.7.1. Atomic Number Effect, Z
9.7.2. Absorption correction, A
9.7.3. Characteristic Fluorescence Correction, F
9.7.4. Calculation of ZAF
9.7.5. The Analytical Total
9.8. Practical Analysis
9.8.1. Examples of Quantitative Analysis
9.8.1.1. Al-Cu Alloys
9.8.1.2. Ni-10 wt% Fe Alloy
9.8.1.3. Ni-38.5 wt% Cr-3.0 wt% Al Alloy
9.8.1.4. Pyroxene: 53.5 wt% SiO2, 1.11 wt% Al2O3, 0.62 wt% Cr2O3, 9.5 wt% FeO, 14.1 wt% MgO, and 21.2 wt% CaO
9.8.2. Standardless Analysis
9.8.2.1. First-Principles Standardless Analysis
9.8.2.2. "Fitted-Standards" Standardless Analysis
9.8.3. Special Procedures for Geological Analysis
9.8.3.1. Introduction
9.8.3.2. Formulation of the Bence-Albee Procedure
9.8.3.3. Application of the Bence-Albee Procedure
9.8.3.4. Specimen Conductivity
9.8.4. Precision and Sensitivity in X-Ray Analysis
9.8.4.1. Statistical Basis for Calculating Precision and Sensitivity
9.8.4.2. Precision of Composition
9.8.4.3. Sample Homogeneity
9.8.4.4. Analytical Sensitivity
9.8.4.5. Trace Element Analysis
9.8.4.6. Trace Element Analysis Geochronologic Applications
9.8.4.7. Biological and Organic Specimens
- References
10. Special Topics in Electron Beam X-Ray Microanalysis
10.1. Introduction
10.2. Thin Film on a Substrate
10.3. Particle Analysis
10.3.1. Particle Mass Effect
10.3.2. Particle Absorption Effect
10.3.3. Particle Fluorescence Effect
10.3.4. Particle Geometric Effects
10.3.5. Corrections for Particle Geometric Effects
10.3.5.1. The Consequences of Ignoring Particle Effects
10.3.5.2. Normalization
10.3.5.3. Critical Measurement Issues for Particles
10.3.5.4. Advanced Quantitative Methods for Particles
10.4. Rough Surfaces
10.4.1. Introduction
10.4.2. Rough Specimen Analysis Strategy
10.4.2.1. Reorientation
10.4.2.2. Normalization
10.4.2.3. Peak-to-Background Method
10.5. Beam-Sensitive Specimens (Biological, Polymeric)
10.5.1. Thin-Section Analysis
10.5.2. Bulk Biological and Organic Specimens
10.6. X-Ray Mapping
10.6.1. Relative Merits of WDS and EDS for Mapping
10.6.2. Digital Dot Mapping
10.6.3. Gray-Scale Mapping
10.6.3.1. The Need for Scaling in Gray-Scale Mapping
10.6.3.2. Artifacts in X-Ray Mapping
10.6.4. Compositional Mapping
10.6.4.1. Principles of Compositional Mapping
10.6.4.2. Advanced Spectrum Collection Strategies for Compositional Mapping
10.6.5. The Use of Color in Analyzing and Presenting X-Ray\ Maps
10.6.5.1. Primary Color Superposition
10.6.5.2. Pseudocolor Scales
10.7. Light Element Analysis
10.7.1. Optimization of Light Element X-Ray Generation
10.7.2. X-Ray Spectrometry of the Light Elements
10.7.2.1. Si EDS
10.7.2.2. WDS
10.7.3. Special Measurement Problems for the Light Elements
10.7.3.1. Contamination
10.7.3.2. Overvoltage Effects
10.7.3.3. Absorption Effects
10.7.4.Light Element Quantification
10.8. Low-Voltage Microanalysis
10.8.1. "Low-Voltage" versus "Conventional" Microanalysis
10.8.2. X-Ray Production Range
10.8.2.1. Contribution of the Beam Size to the X-Ray Analytical Resolution
10.8.2.2. A Consequence of the X-Ray Range under Low-Voltage Conditions
10.8.3. X-Ray Spectrometry in Low-Voltage Microanalysis
10.8.3.1. The Oxygen and Carbon Problem
10.8.3.2. Quantitative X-Ray Microanalysis at Low Voltage
10.9. Report of Analysis
- References
11. Specimen Preparation of Hard Materials: Metals, Ceramics, Rocks, Minerals, Microelectronic and Packaged Devices, Particles, and Fibers
11.1. Metals
11.1.1. Specimen Preparation for Surface Topography
11.1.2. Specimen Preparation for Microstructural and Microchemical Analysis
11.1.2.1. Initial Sample Selection and Specimen Preparation Steps
11.1.2.2. Final Polishing Steps
11.1.2.3. Preparation for Microanalysis
11.2. Ceramics and Geological Samples
11.2.1. Initial Specimen Preparation: Topography and Microstructure
11.2.2. Mounting and Polishing for Microstructural and Microchemical Analysis
11.2.3. Final Specimen Preparation for Microstructural and Microchemical Analysis
11.3. Microelectronics and Packages
11.3.1. Initial Specimen Preparation
11.3.2. Polishing
11.3.3. Final Preparation
11.4. Imaging of Semiconductors
11.4.1. Voltage Contrast
11.4.2. Charge Collection
11.5. Preparation for Electron Diffraction in the SEM
11.5.1. Channeling Patterns and Channeling Contrast
11.5.2. Electron Backscatter Diffraction
11.6. Special Techniques
11.6.1. Plasma Cleaning
11.6.2. Focused-Ion-Beam Sample Preparation for SEM
11.6.2.1. Application of FIB for Semiconductors
11.6.2.2. Applications of FIB in Materials Science
11.7.Particles and Fibers
11.7.1. Particle Substrates and Supports
11.7.1.1. Bulk Particle Substrates
11.7.1.2. Thin Particle Supports
11.7.2. Particle Mounting Techniques
11.7.3. Particles Collected on Filters
11.7.4. Particles in a Solid Matrix
11.7.5. Transfer of Individual Particles
- References
12. Specimen Preparation of Polymer Materials
12.1. Introduction
12.2. Microscopy of Polymers
12.2.1. Radiation Effects
12.2.2. Imaging Compromises
12.2.3. Metal Coating Polymers for Imaging
12.2.4. X-Ray Microanalysis of Polymers
12.3. Specimen Preparation Methods for Polymers
12.3.1. Simple Preparation Methods
12.3.2. Polishing of Polymers
12.3.3. Microtomy of Polymers
12.3.4. Fracture of Polymer Materials
12.3.5. Staining of Polymers
12.3.5.1. Osmium Tetroxide and Ruthenium Tetroxide
12.3.5.2. Ebonite
12.3.5.3. Chlorosulfonic Acid and Phosphotungstic Acid
12.3.6. Etching of Polymers
12.3.7. Replication of Polymers
12.3.8. Rapid Cooling and Drying Methods for Polymers
12.3.8.1. Simple Cooling Methods
12.3.8.2. Freeze-Drying
12.3.8.3. Critical-Point Drying
12.4. Choosing Specimen Preparation Methods
12.4.1. Fibers
12.4.2. Films and Membranes
12.4.3. Engineering Resins and Plastics
12.4.4. Emulsions and Adhesives
12.5. Problem-Solving Protocol
12.6. Image Interpretation and Artifacts
- References
13. Ambient-Temperature Specimen Preparation of Biological Material
13.1. Introduction
13.2. Preparative Procedures for the Structural SEM of Single Cells, Biological Particles, and Fibers
13.2.1. Particulate, Cellular, and Fibrous Organic Material
13.2.2. Dry Organic Particles and Fibers
13.2.2.1. Organic Particles and Fibers on a Filter
13.2.2.2. Organic Particles and Fibers Entrained within a Filter
13.2.2.3. Organic Particulate Matter Suspended in a Liquid
13.2.2.4. Manipulating Individual Organic Particles
13.3. Preparative Procedures for the Structural Observation of Large Soft Biological Specimens
13.3.1. Introduction
13.3.2. Sample Handling before Fixation
13.3.3. Fixation
13.3.4. Microwave Fixation
13.3.5. Conductive Infiltration
13.3.6. Dehydration
13.3.7. Embedding
13.3.8. Exposing the Internal Contents of Bulk Specimens
13.3.8.1. Mechanical Dissection
13.3.8.2. High-Energy-Beam Surface Erosion
13.3.8.3. Chemical Dissection
13.3.8.4. Surface Replicas and Corrosion Casts
13.3.9. Specimen Supports and Methods of Sample Attachment
13.3.10. Artifacts
13.4. Preparative Procedures for the in Situ Chemical Analysis of Biological Specimens in the SEM
13.4.1. Introduction
13.4.2. Preparative Procedures for Elemental Analysis Using X-Ray Microanalysis
13.4.2.1. The Nature and Extent of the Problem
13.4.2.2. Types of Sample That May be Analyzed
13.4.2.3. The General Strategy for Sample Preparation
13.4.2.4. Criteria for Judging Satisfactory Sample Preparation
13.4.2.5. Fixation and Stabilization
13.4.2.6. Precipitation Techniques
13.4.2.7. Procedures for Sample Dehydration, Embedding, and Staining
13.4.2.8. Specimen Supports
13.4.3. Preparative Procedures for Localizing Molecules Using Histochemistry
13.4.3.1. Staining and Histochemical Methods
13.4.3.2. Atomic Number Contrast with Backscattered Electrons
13.4.4. Preparative Procedures for Localizing Macromolecues Using Immunocytochemistry
13.4.4.1. Introduction
13.4.4.2. The Antibody-Antigen Reaction
13.4.4.3. General Features of Specimen Preparation for Immunocytochemistry
13.4.4.4. Imaging Procedures in the SEM
- References
14. Low-Temperature Specimen Preparation
14.1. Introduction
14.2. The Properties of Liquid Water and Ice
14.3. Conversion of Liquid Water to Ice
14.4. Specimen Pretreatment before Rapid (Quench) Cooling
14.4.1. Minimizing Sample Size and Specimen Holders
14.4.2. Maximizing Undercooling
14.4.3. Altering the Nucleation Process
14.4.4. Artificially Depressing the Sample Freezing Point
14.4.5. Chemical Fixation
14.5. Quench Cooling
14.5.1. Liquid Cryogens
14.5.2. Solid Cryogens
14.5.3. Methods for Quench Cooling
14.5.4. Comparison of Quench Cooling Rates
14.6. Low-Temperature Storage and Sample Transfer
14.7. Manipulation of Frozen Specimens: Cryosectioning, Cryofracturing, and Cryoplaning
14.7.1. Cryosectioning
14.7.2. Cryofracturing
14.7.3. Cryopolishing or Cryoplaning
14.8. Ways to Handle Frozen Liquids within the Specimen
14.8.1. Frozen-Hydrated and Frozen Samples
14.8.2. Freeze-Drying
14.8.2.1. Physical Principles Involved in Freeze-Drying
14.8.2.2. Equipment Needed for Freeze-Drying
14.8.2.3. Artifacts Associated with Freeze-Drying
14.8.3. Freeze Substitution and Low-Temperature Embedding
14.8.3.1. Physical Principles Involved in Freeze Substitution and Low-Temperature Embedding
14.8.3.2. Equipment Needed for Freeze Substitution and Low-Temperature Embedding
14.9. Procedures for Hydrated Organic Systems
14.10. Procedures for Hydrated Inorganic Systems
14.11. Procedures for Nonaqueous Liquids
14.12. Imaging and Analyzing Samples at Low Temperatures
- References
15. Procedures for Elimination of Charging in Nonconducting Specimens
15.1. Introduction
15.2. Recognizing Charging Phenomena
15.3. Procedures for Overcoming the Problems of Charging
15.4. Vacuum Evaporation Coating
15.4.1. High-Vacuum Evaporation Methods
15.4.2. Low-Vacuum Evaporation Methods
15.5. Sputter Coating
15.5.1. Plasma Magnetron Sputter Coating
15.5.2. Ion Beam and Penning Sputtering
15.6. High-Resolution Coating Methods
15.7. Coating for Analytical Studies
15.8. Coating Procedures for Samples Maintained at Low Temperatures
15.9. Coating Thickness
5.10. Damage and Artifacts on Coated Samples
15.11. Summary of Coating Guidelines
- References
- Enhancements CD
... weniger
Autoren-Porträt von Joseph Goldstein, Dale E. Newbury, David C. Joy
This text is written by a team of authors associated with SEM and X-ray Microanalysis Courses presented as part of the Lehigh University Microscopy Summer School. Several of the authors have participated in this activity for more than 30 years.
Bibliographische Angaben
- Autoren: Joseph Goldstein , Dale E. Newbury , David C. Joy
- 2002, 3rd ed., 689 Seiten, Maße: 18,7 x 25,9 cm, Gebunden, Englisch
- Verlag: Springer Netherlands
- ISBN-10: 0306472929
- ISBN-13: 9780306472923
Sprache:
Englisch
Rezension zu „Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray Microanalysis “
"There is no other single volume that covers as much theory and practice of SEM or X-ray microanalysis as Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-ray Microanalysis, 3rd Edition does. It is clearly written [and] well organized[.]... This is a reference text that no SEM or EPMA laboratory should be without." --Thomas J. Wilson, in Scanning, Vol. 27, No. 4, July/August 2005"As the authors pointed out, the number of equations in the book is kept to a minimum, and important conceptions are also explained in a qualitative manner. An enhancement CD gives useful database and more detailed discussions on some equations. A lot of very distinct images and schematic drawings make for a very interesting book and help readers who study scanning electron microscopy and X-ray microanalysis. The principal application and sample preparation given in this book are suitable for undergraduate students and technicians learning SEEM and EDS/WDS analyses. It is an excellent textbook for graduate students, and an outstanding reference for engineers, physical, and biological scientists." (Microscopy and Microanalysis, 9:5 (October 2003)
Kommentar zu "Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray Microanalysis"
0 Gebrauchte Artikel zu „Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray Microanalysis“
| Zustand | Preis | Porto | Zahlung | Verkäufer | Rating |
|---|
Schreiben Sie einen Kommentar zu "Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray Microanalysis".
Kommentar verfassen